为您找到与英语小说选读论文相关的共200个结果:
写作是英语教学中的一项重要内容,可以说它是学生英语的素养的综合反映,能够充分体现学生对英语知识的掌握情况。同时,写作也是英语教学的一大难点,枯燥的训练和模仿往往难以有效地提高学生的英语写作水平。因此,研究探讨英语写作方法的培养具有重要意义。
1.议题的提出要开门见山,不要拖泥带水,啰啰唆唆
2.正反两方面的观点一般都要摆出,有时也有只强调一种观点的,那么这就等于将上述第二点和第三点合在一起了
3.作者的观点必须鲜明,不能模棱两可
4.论证自己的观点是议论文的最关键的部分。论证手段与英语说明文中的一些写作手法相同,常用的有罗列法、举例法、因果法、比较法等等。
5.对于较长的英语议论文还可以在文章结尾时对全文要点作一小结。
下面这篇学生作文是较为典型的一篇英语议论文:
Should Examination Be Abolished (取消)?
The examination system has come to be the main theme (主题)of modern education. One should take an examination andsucceed in passing it before he could be admitted, promoted or graduated. As it plays so important a role in the realm of education (教育的领域) it is under much criticism (评论) as to its validity (有效性) . People who are in favour of it try to develop this system more; those who are against it believe that such a system should be abolished. Should examination be abolished? In my opinion it should be.
Many people think that an examination is the only means to test knowledge, but, in fact, that is not true. A few questions given in an examination could by no means cover the whole field of the subject. Thus those who are able to answer them may be the poorest of the students and yet happen to know just a few points about that subject.
I'd like to say that, because of the existence of the examination system, students pay so much attention to gaining high marks, that they often forget the chief purpose of education. The so-called clever students devote (贡献) themselves to the study of textbooks only. They, of course, know nothing but the skeleton (梗概) of knowledge. The end and aim of education, however, is to enable students to learn how to live. To do this, students must get themselves to do all kinds of training, physicalas well as mental. The present examination system has discouraged students from making such an attempt.
Moreover, since the students try so hard to put their lessons into memory in as short a time as possible, psychologically (心理上来看), they soon forget the whole subject as soon as the examination is over. Surely this is one of the greatest wastes ever made in the history of civilization.
Lastly, in order to get high marks, there is a great temptation (诱惑) for students to cheat (作弊) in an examination. Indeed, such a practice becomes the means to the end. They cheat their teachers, their parents and also themselves. Such a tendency would impair (损害) our moral standards (道德标准) .
Therefore, I am of the opinion, in conclusion, that the examination system should be abolished.
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一般说来,议论文可分三个基本段落来写:第一段引出话题;第二段立论且加以论证;第三段给出明确的结论。第二段是中心段落,应试者应将主要的内容放在第二段中,同时也要注意开篇及结尾段落的完整性,且应尽量做到首尾呼应,切忌前后矛盾。下面是读文网小编整理的一些英语四级议论文写作方法,以供大家学习参考。
1) 段落的统一性英语段落有一大特点,即一个段落只涉及一个主题(甚至只是一个主题的某个方面)。段落中的一个句子点出主题并说明作者对该主题的看法,而其它所有句子都是为展开该主题而给出的事实、例证、推理,它们与主题紧密相关。段落中不应有一个与主题无关的句子。英文段落的这种各个句子与主题的关联性被称作段落的统一性。
2) 语篇的连贯性英语议论文的段落多采取直线展开式,即段落开始直接切入主题,并给出事实、例证、推理等。英语议论文段落这种展开方式是形成其语篇连贯的基础。语篇的连贯是指段落中各句的意义通过某种有序的排列(如时间顺序、因果顺序、逻辑顺序等)而相互关联。在论述该段落主题的时候,每后一个句子都是建立在前面一个句子的基础之上的。如果去掉段落中的一个句子,这种连贯便会受到影响,就会造成读者在理解上的困难。
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以下是小编整理的一些主题型议论文作文模板,希望对英语学习者有帮助。
l 主题型议论文
[写作模板]阐述主题型
第一段:A famous saying goes that_____________________(名言或谚语).
It means that_______________________________(释义).
An example of this case is____________________(举例,解释).
第二段:Another case in point is_______________________(例二)/Secondly,_______
第三段:I like the saying ____________(名言) which encourages me____________(理由)
议论文作文例句参考:
1. From what has been discussed above (Tacking into all these factors/Judging from all
evidence offered), we may draw the conclusion that...
2. All the evidence (analysis) supports ( confirms/warrants/points to ) a ( an ) unshakable
(sound/unmistakable) conclusion that ...
3. There is no immediate (effective) solution (approach / answer / remedy) to the problem
of... , but ... might be useful (helpful / beneficial).
4. It is high time that we place great (special/considerable) emphasis on the improvement
( development/promotion) of...
5. It is necessary (essential/fundamental) that effective (proper) action (measures / steps /
remedies) should be taken to prevent the situation.
6. For the reasons given above, I feel (recommend) that...
7. It is hoped (suggested/recommended) that great (corporate / persistent) efforts should be
made to control ....
模版1 Some people believe (argue, recognize, think) that 观点1. But other people take an opposite side. They firmly believe that 观点2. As for me, I agree to the former/latter idea.
There are a dozen of reasons behind my belief. First of all, 论据1.
More importantly, 论据2.
Most important of all, 论据3.
In summary, 总结观点. As a college student, I am supposed to 表决心.
或 From above, we can predict that 预测.
模版2
People hold different views about X. Some people are of the opinion that 观点1, while others point out that 观点2. As far as I am concerned, the former/latter opinion holds more weight.
For one thing, 论据1.
For another, 论据2.
Last but not the least, 论据3.
To conclude, 总结观点. As a college student, I am supposed to 表决心.
或 From above, we can predict that 预测.
模版3
There is no consensus of opinions among people about X(争论的焦点)。Some people are of the view that 观点1,while others take an opposite side, firmly believing that 观点2。As far as I am concerned, the former/latter notion is preferable in many senses. The reasons are obvious.
First of all, 论据1。
Furthermore, 论据2。
Among all of the supporting evidences, one is the strongest. That is, 论据3。
A natural conclusion from the above discussion is that总结观点。
As a college student, I am supposed to 表决心.
或 From above, we can predict that 预测.
e.g. should women be regarded as inferior to men?
(1)
I never think that women should be treated as the second-class citizens. observing objectively, you’ll find that women have succeeded in virtually any existing occupation you care to name: politicians, soldiers, doctors, university professors, lawyers, business executives, scientists and even presidents of countries. today’s intense competition in jobs is not only between men, but also between men and the ’weaker sex’, who have often put men to shame in almost every field. yet men refuse to acknowledge them and give women their due, and their attitude towards women BEComes even more hostile. the only sound explanation for this is that men shun (回避,躲避) real competition-they are afraid of being beaten at the games that they consider to be their own.
if there is anything that men are better than women, it is their physical strength. no other things that men claim to excel in are borne out by statistics. physical strength excluded, the fact is that men and women are basically equal in all kinds of abilities except when it comes to language art and negotiation skills, at which women are better. you can be sure that if negotiation tasks were left to women who are gentler, more graceful and levelheaded, they would succeed brilliantly, where men have failed for centuries, and therefore war has been a frequent scene on this planet. believe it or not, it is women who could turn those filthy and bloody battlefields into lands of joy. so some things are too important to be left to men! (252 words)
(2)
it sounds pretty ridiculous to claim that men and women are equal and have the same abilities. men have excelled in every field of work. plato, freud, beethoven, einstein, pavarotti and li ning are the names of great men in different fields, to name just a few. can you effortlessly think up a woman’s name that can match those brilliant names? you may argue that you can name a dozen of great women athletes. well, yes. however, they look great simply because they have never run or played against men. see what happens if you group men and women together in the same race.
women are justifiably called the weaker sex not only because they are physically weak, they are mentally fragile as well. they depend too little on cool reasoning and too much on intuition and instinct to arrive at decisions. sometimes they are not even capable of thinking clearly. that is why they often gossip and chatter and scream whenever they talk, which men seldom do, and that is also why there are eMBArrassingly few women politicians in any country you can think of. big decisions are always left for men to make, for they are more reliable, rational, and levelheaded.
many women complain that they look inferior because they have never been offered equal opportunities in jobs. this may have been true in the long past, but not now. the fact is that jobs are open to both sexes, but it is almost impossible for women to be wives, mothers and successful career women all at once. actually most women are glad to let men support their families. they know that bearing and rearing children are more important. and that is why men outnumber women in practically every kind of job. they are not excluded; they exclude themselves. (299 words)
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你知道发表论文的英文怎么说吗?下面一起来看看吧。
他通过发表论文、FAQ,和期刊文章来减少客户的学习曲线,从而减少所有权的成本。
He reduces the cost of ownership by publishing papers, FAQs, and journalarticles to reduce the client's learning curve.
他说,对于科技工作者工作的评价,要有一个合理的提升途径,而较少地把重点放在诸如发表论文数量等外部因素上。
"There should be a clear career path for promotions and awards, " he toldSciDev.Net, with less emphasis on extraneous factors, such as the number ofpapers published.
此外,在开放获取的出版模式下,研究者需要付费投稿或发表论文,从而“带来了一层妨碍知识交流的新屏障”。
发表论文 英语怎么说
The society also says that publishing models in which researchers pay to submitor publish papers "introduce a new disincentive to the exchange of knowledge".
以发表论文的数量来衡量,中国是世界上科学产量居第二位的国家。
Measured by the number of published papers, China is the second mostproductive scientific nation on Earth.
“研究人员要得到奖励和晋升,很大程度上基于他所发表论文的数量,这成为促使研究者造假的危险的激励方式。”他说。
"A researcher is rewarded and promoted largely based on the number ofpublished papers, which poses dangerous incentives for researchers to commitfraud," he said.
也许他或她就在今天这个时代,正在解决一些方程式,准备发表论文并因此获得诺贝尔奖。
Probably she or he is out there today, working on the equations, getting ready topublish the paper that will win the Nobel Prize.
例如,很多院所规定,如果在毕业之前不发表论文,博士生就不能获得学位。
Many institutions, for example, stipulate that doctoral candidates cannot gain theirPhD unless they have published one paper before graduation.
其他家长则担心高校录取问题,因此就督促孩子在科学杂志发表论文,为无家可归者装配电脑,从而拓展自己的简历。
Other parents worry about college admissions, so they push their kids to developtheir resume by publishing papers in science journals and building computers forthe homeless.
该社论说,伊朗的剽窃行为可能源于英语水平困难或面临发表论文作为提升条件的压力。
Plagiarism in Iran could arise from difficulties with English or from pressure topublish as a condition for promotion, says the editorial.
沈阳呼吁给教师、研究人员和学生减轻发表论文的负担。
Shen called for an end to the paper publishing burden on teachers, researchersand students.
这里几乎没有持续发表论文的压力。
There's less pressure to constantly publish papers.
但是会制订政策,规定那些在国内精品期刊上发表的论文给科学家带来的待遇等同于在国际知名期刊上发表论文。
"But we plan to stipulate that papers published in the leading domestic journalsshould result in the same rewards as those published in leading internationallyjournals, " Wu said.
他们可以获得知识、学习国际最佳实践并增加他们在高水平杂志上发表论文的机会。
They can gain knowledge, learn international best practice and improve theirchances of getting published in high-quality journals.
然而,跟许多其他完成了同样工作的研究者一样,在试图往医疗刊物上发表论文时,他被迫忍受着漫长的等待。
Yet like many equally accomplished researchers, he was forced to endure longdelays when trying to publish papers in medical journals
这个指标衡量各种期刊以及在期刊上发表论文的科研作者的引用可见度。
The scores measure the citation visibility of established journals and ofresearchers who publish in them.
他们必须在国际认可的出版物上发表论文,从而让他们保持在科学讨论之中。
They must strive to publish in internationally-recognised publications so they stay'in the loop' of scientific discussions.
为了实现这个目标,他们通常会专注在一个相对有限的知识领域,使出浑身解数去发表论文。
The usual way to accomplish this is to develop expertise in a relatively narrowarea and publish like mad in it.
其他人则指出,大学教师晋升政策中,注重的是发表论文数量而不是质量,这也是导致学术腐败的一个因素。
Others suggest that universities' policy of promoting teachers according to thequantity, rather than the quality, of their published output plays a role.
在国际知名期刊上发表论文的中国科学家经常比他们那些从事不太知名研究的同事多赚几倍钱。
Chinese scientists who publish research in internationally famous journals oftenearn several times more than their colleagues whose work is less prominent.
一位研究人员发现,研究人员和教师渴望在中国“不发表论文就消失”的体系中成功,使得该国的论文交易增长了五倍。
Researchers and lecturers desperate to succeed in China's 'publish or perish'system have driven a five-fold increase in the country's scientific 'paper trade', aresearcher has found.
他是技术刊物、会议的评论家,发表论文超过30篇。
He is a reviewer of technical journals and conferences and published more than30 articles.
《卫生事务》发表论文的作者们说,这也更有理由撤销对强迫症病人的试验性的技术治疗和免责。
The authors of the paper in Health Affairs say this is all the more reason torevoke the exemption and subject the technique to proper testing in studies ofO.C.D. patients.
《卫生事务》发表论文的作者们说,这也更有理由撤销对强迫症病人的试验性的技术治疗和免责。
The authors of the paper in Health Affairs say this is all the more reason torevoke the exemption and subject the technique to proper testing in studies ofO.C.D. patients.
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古典文学常见论文一词,谓交谈辞章或交流思想。当代,论文常用来指进行各个学术领域的研究和描述学术研究成果的文章,简称之为论文。那么,你知道论文的英语怎么说吗?
老师问了我一些和我的论文有关的问题。
The teacher asked me some questions relative to my paper.
老师的办公室里堆满了大批不同的论文。
There is a heterogeneous mass of papers in the teacher's office.
我们相信你在星期五之前可以完成这篇论文。
We are depending on you to finish the paper by Friday.
英语论文怎么写
还没有装订成册的论文稿件堆放在桌子上。
The unbound sheets of paper were piled up on the table.
他写的论文很优秀。
The treatise he wrote is excellent.
我们的教授要求他就这个课题写篇论文。
Our professor asked him to write a treatise on the subject.
论文最后简要总结了本论文的内容和不足。
The last chapter of the paper briefly summarizes the harvest and deficiency.
将参赛的建模方案论文复印三份,将摘要页装订在每份论文的第一页上沿。
Staple one copy of the summary sheet on top of each copy of the solution paper.
我们将在一起审阅这些论文。
We shall go through these papers together.
我终于写完了李教授要的论文。
I finally popped that paper for Professor Li.
教授已经把我的论文搁置一个月了。
The professor has turned aside my paper for a month.
这是你的论文吗?
Is this you dissertation?
它就是你要表达的东西,这个论文也是,另一种思考它的方式,关于一个问题的答案。
It is what you profess. Well, the thesis is also, another way to think of it, an answer to a question.
他表示愿意帮助我一起做我的研究论文。
He offered to help me with my research paper.
看到了,你打算递交论文吗?
Do you plan to submit any paper?
一些书籍和论文讲述了如何在单元测试中使用模拟对象,描述的是模拟对象应该具备的能力以及如何使用他们。
Several books and papers show how to use mock objects in unit testing. Thesedescribe the capabilities that mock objects should have and how to use them.
这个部分是对论文所要写的内容做个一般性的介绍—它不仅仅是对每一部分的描述。
This is a general introduction to what the thesis is all about -- it is not just adescription of the contents of each section.
即便这样 这还是一片非常糟糕的论文如果让我审核的话它一定会被淹没在红墨水的海洋里去.
Yet it's an awful paper that I would have shredded in a sea of red ink if it hadcome to me.
玛雅:现在你得让我采访你,好写我的论文。
Maya: Now you have to let me interview for my paper.
这里你列举出你的论文所做出的新知识的贡献。
Here you list the contributions of new knowledge that your thesis makes.
用另一句话来说就是,这篇短文应该会对你很有帮助无论是你刚刚开始你的研究生课程还是稍后你要开始写你的论文。
In other words, this note should be helpful when you are just getting started inyour graduate program, as well as later when you start to write your thesis.
但他的批评者同意一个事实:他的论文指出了减少化肥的使用在中国的重要性。
And his critics agree with him on one matter: the paper points to the importance ofreducing fertilizer use in China.
那时我将真的不得不对期末论文评分了。
Then I really do have to grade term papers.
此外,论文的方法部分本来应该为其他人复制实验提供足够的信息,但通常情况都不是这样。
Moreover, the methods sections of papers are supposed to provide enoughinformation for others to replicate an experiment, but often do not.
在那个研讨会上,他交了一篇,论文,是为其它一些场合写的,是关于关心这个概念。
At the symposium, he submitted a paper which he had written for some otheroccasion on the concept of caring about.
但是他们的论文是最完备的。
But their paper is the most thorough.
你什么时候能完成学期论文?
When will you finish the term paper?
不管你的学期论文是关于什么的,因特网总可以帮助你选择主题或提供多种多样的主题供你选择。
No matter whatever your term paper is about, they help you in selecting topicsand some offer a wide range of topics to choose from.
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下面是读文网小编整理的英语教育论文范文,希望对大家有帮助。
整体教学现在已成为许多学科所研究的共同课题。但对于整体教学的理解和解释却各有不同。笔者以为, 随着新教学大纲的实施和新编英语教材的使用,英语教师和教研人员非常有必要多方位和多角度地深入研究英 语整体教学,广义地理解整体教学的深层意义,使其从根本上推进当前的英语教学研究和改革,提高英语教学 的效益,以服务于社会发展之需要。
一、整体教学思想
整体教学是一种教学思想,不应单纯地被看为一种教学方法。整体教学思想是现代外语教育教学研究的重 大成果,是社会发展和中学教育教学的目标对于外语教学的需要。外语教学和教研人员都应该认识到:
1.整体教学是现代外语教育教学理论和实践研究的成果所确定的。
现代外语教育教学理论和实践研究得出为众多外语教学流派所公认的结论有3条:
(1)部分之和不等于整体。
语言是个活的机体,不能切割成一块一块地去“学”。学习了某种语言一条条、一项项的知识,绝不等于 掌握了语言整体。
(2)语言知识不等于语言运用。
语音、语法、词汇等只属于语言的结构体系。语音、语法、词汇等是语言运用的准备,但不等于语言运用 。
(3)语言教学的目的应该是语言运用,而不是语言知识的掌握。
外语教学应使学生能在实际的交际环境中,为实现交际而运用语言知识(语音、语法、词汇等)才能够算 使他们学会了语言。
2.整体教学是我国英语教学大纲的目的和要求所确定的。
我国九年义务教育英语教学大纲和全日制高级中学英语教学大纲的教学目的和要求阿充分体现了整体教学的 思想。大纲对英语教学提出了为培养学生在口头上和书面上初步运用英语进行交际为重心,整体综合性发展的 教学目的和要求。其中包括英语基础知识,英语听说读写技能,英语学习习惯和方法,英语教学的近期和远期 目标,对英语使用国家的文化了解,以及注意、思维、记忆、想象、联想等能力。
英语教师实施整体教学首要的条件是,学习掌握现代外语教学的理论和教学大纲所确立的教学目标,真正 树立整体教学思想并使这种思想成为自己的一种信念(belief)。思想是行动的指南。心中时有整体教学思想 在,才能自觉不断地剔除陈旧落后的教学思维模式和习惯,改进自己的教学设计和教学程序,整体处理教学内 容,形成具有时代特征的教学新途径。
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下面是读文网小编整理的高中英语议论文写作,以供大家学习参考。
写一篇以 About Examinations 为题的议论文。要求 200 个词左右。
提示:
1. 自从我上学以来不知经历了多少次考试。
2. 有人认为考试是老师的秘密武器,我却不以为然……
3. 这是我国的制度问题,……要改革考试。
4. 建议必要处增加一些细节。
拟用词语:
1. magic weapon 秘密武器
2. reform the entrance system 改革考试制度
About Examination
I don't remember how many examinations I've taken since I began my schooling. To tell the truth, I don't like examinations at all. I dare say that, in fact, no student likes examinations.
We often hear people say “Examinations are teachers' magic weapon”, so most of us may think it is our teachers who give us students so many examinations. But I don't think so. Almost all of them have once been students before they became teachers. We don't like examinations, and neither do our teachers, which may be reasonably concluded. What's more, the more examinations we take, the more time will be taken from our teachers and the more trouble our teachers have to take.
It is the system in our country, I think, that gives us students so many examinations. If there were no entrance examinations, and all the students could go up to the higher grades without competition, there would not be so many examinations in primary and middle schools. So it is important and necessary to reform the test system. Only in this way can examinations be greatly reduced, and then all the students will be happier.
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下面是读文网小编整理的英语小诗选读,欢迎大家阅读!
Thirty days have September,
四、六、九月、十一月
April, June, and November,
都有三十日和夜,
All the rest have thirty一one
其余各月多一天
Excepting February alone,
只有二月不一般,
Which has eight days and a score
二十八天平常年
Till leap一year gives it one day more.
闰年来时加一天。
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下面是读文网小编整理的商务英语论文范文,希望对大家有帮助。
Contents
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..1
Chapter One Cultural Differenceces………………………………………………..1
1.1 The Definition of Culture………………………………………….....................1
1.2 Causes of Cultural Differences………………………………………………….2
1.2.1 Regional Differences……………………………………………………….2
1.2.2 Ethnic Differences…………………………………………………………2
1.2.3 Political Differences……………………………………………………….2
1 .2.4 Economic Differences…………………………………………………….2
1.2.5 Religious Differences………………………………………………….......3
1.2.6 Value Differences………………………………………………………….3
1.2.7 Law and Ethics Differences……………………………………………….3
Chapter Two Impact of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiations…………………………………………………………………………..3
2.1Impact of Value Views Differences on International Business Negotiations 4
2.1.1Impact of Time View Difference on Negotiation. 4
2.1.2Impact of Equality View Difference on Negotiation. 5
2.1.3 Impact of Objectivity Difference on Negotiation. 6
2.2 Impact of Negotiating Style Differences on International Business Negotiations. 6
2.3 Communication Process…………………………………..
3. Coping Strategy Of Negotiating Across Cultures. 9
3.1 Making Preparations before Negotiation. 9
3.2 Overcoming Cultural Prejudice. 10
3.3 Conquering Communication Barriers. 10
Conclusion 11
Bibliography 12
Acknowledgements 13#p#副标题#e#
摘 要
不同文化条件下的商务谈判就是跨文化谈判。在世界经济日趋全球化的今天,随着国际间商务交往活动的频繁和密切,各国间的文化差异就显得格外的重要,否则将会引起不必要的误会,甚至可能直接影响商务交往的实际效果。这味着如何化解各国不同文化背景在国际商务谈判中是非常重要的。文章从文化差异的类型入手,然后解释了这些文化差异对国际商务谈判的影响,最后分析了如何正确解决谈判过程中文化差异的问题。文章强调了这样一个观点,在不同国家商务谈判中,谈判员应该接受对方的文化,并试图是自己被对方所接受,然后在有效沟通的帮助下做出正确评估,并找出它们之间的真正利益。此外,们应该尽可能的清楚的了解并发现对方的文化。这对文化谈判的成功至关重要。
关键词:文化,文化差异,商务谈判,影响
Abstract
The business negotiations under different cultural conditions come to cross- cultural negotiations. With the economic globalization and the frequent business contacts, cultural differences seem to be very important; otherwise they could cause unnecessary misunderstanding, even affect the result of the business negotiations. This means it is very important to know the different culture in different countries and the ways to avoid the culture conflicts in the international business negotiations. The article commences from the types of culture differences, then it explains the impacts of these culture differences on international business negotiation and finally it analyzes how to deal with the problem of the cultural differences correctly in negotiation process. Such a standpoint is emphasized: In the business negotiations between different countries, negotiators should accept the other party’s culture, and try to make him be accepted; then make a correct evaluation with the help of valid communication and discover their real benefits between them. Besides, we should know clearly and try to accept the culture differences as possible as we can. It is very important for the success of culture negotiations.
Key words: Culture, Clturaltal differences,Business negotitation,Impact
Introduction
Along with the advancement globalization and China’s WTO entry, business enterprises in China have to face more and more business negotiations with foreign enterprises, especially with American enterprises. In these negotiations, Chinese negotiators sometimes feel uncomfortable, puzzled, lost, irritated and the alike, because of unfamiliar custom and behaviors demonstrated by American negotiators. Meanwhile, American negotiators confront the same situation. Cult rural differences between China and west countries could cause many problems. Therefore, understanding cultural differences and overcoming them is crucial in international business negotiations.
Although the definition of culture is numerous and vague, it is commonly Recognized that culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, values, attitudes and expectations. Culture is a major determinant in business negotiation. So have a clear picture of culture differences if of great significance.
Chapter One Cultural Differences
The east countries and west countries have produced different cultures on the different continents. Among the different cultures, value views, negotiating style and thinking model appear more obvious.
1.1 The Definition of Culture
Culture is a national system of specific concepts and values. These concepts become people’s behavior during their life and work. As early as 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn listed 164 definitions of culture that they found in the anthropology literature. Of course, many new definitions have appeared since then. For example, some scholars gave such definition that culture is an integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and not the result of biological inheritance. In the thesis, culture refers to the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, habits, and capabilities acquired by individuals who interact in a specific area of society.
1.2 Causes of Cultural Differences
The impacts of regional differences, ethnic differences, political differences, economic differences, religious differences and value differences on people’s life are embodied in the catering, clothing, housing, holidays, rituals and other material and cultural life in all aspects. These result in cultural differences in different countries and regions.
1.2.1 Regional Differences
Regional differences refer to that people in different geographical regions often have different languages, life styles and hobbies because of the differences of geographical environments, levels of economic development and traditions, which would affect their behavior and habits. For example, western countries pay more attention to Christmas, while the regions have no snow, such as some African countries near the equator, where people have no idea of Christmas. The reason is that the best decoration to Christmas is snow, but people near the equator are not familiar with the snow which never falls on there.
1.2.2 Ethnic Differences
Ethnic differences refer to that different ethnic groups in the process of long-term development form its own languages, customs, habits and hobbies. They have their own characteristics in their diet, clothing, housing, holidays, rituals and other material and cultural life.
1.2.3 Political Differences
Political differences mean that policies and regulations of the political system standardize the behavior of the people’s role so that people under different political system have different political concepts. Take America and France for example: the power of American president is strictly limited by the Constitution and the other two authorities---Congress and Supreme Court. While France has to expand their president’s power due to their own conditions.
1 .2.4 Economic Differences
Economic difference is a reflection of the cultural differences due to economic factors. For example, people in the western developed countries have the rich life, and receive the high education so that they pay more attention to the quality of life, and they have good safety awareness. But in the Third World, especially the developing countries, people are more concerned with the problem of food and clothing. So this is reflected in cultural differences.
1.2.5 Religious Differences
Religion is a historical product with human beings developing into a certain stage. There are three main religions in the world: Christianity, Buddhism and Islam. Christian (Protestant) is predominant in northern Europe, North America and Australia; Christian (Catholic) is predominant in Western Europe and South American countries. Islam largely scope of the Middle East and North Africa. Many people in Asia regions believe in Buddhism. Different religions have different cultural trends and precepts, which affect the way that people understand things, conduct and values.
1.2.6 Value Differences
Value concepts mean people’s evaluation criteria to human being’s internal world. It contains time value, wealth value, the attitude toward life and risk. To the same problems, different people in different societies have different views or even diametrically opposite views. For example, parents in western countries tend to cultivate children to be independent. They encourage their children to deal with their personal things by themselves. Parents in eastern countries, however, always spoil their children. They always help their children finish some things which the children have the ability to cope with by themselves.
This causes their dependence on their parents even when they grow up. This shows that different countries share different values.
1.2.7 Law and Ethics Differences
Law and ethics is an integrated system, but sometimes they are contradictive in business negotiation. Western people like to deal with things according to laws. They usually go to negotiate with accompaniment of their lawyers. On the contrary, eastern people pay more attention to ethics rather than laws. In their eyes, business ethics refers to the measurement of business behavior based on standards of right or wrong, rather than relying entirely on principles of accounting, management or laws.#p#副标题#e#
Chapter Two Impact of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiations
With the rapid development of economy, we need to do business with businessmen under different culture background, so in order to reach trade agreement, it is necessary for us to study the impact of culture differences on international negotiation in global business activities. The impact of culture differences on international negotiation is extensive and deeply. Different cultures divide the people into different group and they are also the obstacles of people’s communication. Accordingly, it is required that the negotiator should accept the culture of each other. Furthermore, through culture differences, it is important that the negotiator reveal and understand the other party’s goal and behavior and make him or herself be accepted by the opponent to reach agreement finally
2.1 Impact of Value Views Differences on International Business Negotiations
Value Views Differences on International Business Negotiations fall into three types: time view, negotiation style, thinking model. Each has big influences on business negotiation
2.1.1 Impact of Time View Difference on Negotiation.
The time view which affects the negotiator’s behavior varies from east countries to west countries. The oriental or the Chinese negotiators are usually cautious and patient. They need to go through the phrases of coming up with proposes, bringing up objections and ending the trade which takes a longer time. And they hope to arrange rich time to go on a negotiation, thus knowing more about the opponent .They are good at long and continuous battle. While west people or we could say American people, consider time is precious. They tend to resolve problems swiftly. So, in business negotiation, American businessmen often complain about the delay and the lack of efficiency of negotiators from other countries, while these countries also make a complaint that the Americans lack patience. There is a popular saying among American negotiators and businessmen: It is prohibited to steal time. That shows the time view of Americans. To them, time means money. The time view of Chinese is cyclic. They use long-term and systematic viewpoints to value the importance of the topic. A famous people classify the time view into two kinds: straight-line time viewand cyclic time view. The former pay more attention to concentration and speed, and the later stress doing many things at one time. That they insist on different time view leads to different negotiating style and method. The American people represent the straight-line time view and they have a strong awareness of modern competition. They look for speed and efficiency. So they value time badly and consider time as a special commodity whose value could be assessed. They often use minute to calculate time .They hope to reduce negotiation time at every phrase and want to complete the negotiation quickly. But the Chinese time view is cyclic and they place emphasis on unity.
Moreover, it is necessary to be punctual at negotiations. West people have a strong time view, if you don’t comply with the appointment time, they may give you a punishment and they will regard you as unreliable and irresponsible person. Being late for negotiation will give the west businessmen opportunities to exert pressure onyou, and then you will lose the status of being initiative.
2.1.2 Impact of Equality View Difference on Negotiation
America went through the bourgeoisie revolution of striving for the equality and freedom, so they take equality into their heart. Americans stick to equality and fairness in business, and hope that both could gain benefit. When introducing the topic or situation, the west people would like to use concrete method, particularly data.
Their negotiating method is that they will describe their viewpoint and propose at the beginning in order to get initiative. Under this principle, they would come up with a reasonable resolution which they think is very fair. In business relationship, the sellers from America regard the buyer as a counterpart. Americans are fairer than Japanese is sharing benefits. A lot of American managers think fair division of profits is more important than how much they could get. At this point, the east people are different. Because of the deeply influence of class view, they don’t pay much attention to equality. They usually adopt single-win strategy in business negotiations. When involving economic benefits they think much about their own benefits and profits and don’t give so much attention to the benefit of their partners. The market economic system of developed countries is quite mature, so west countries take win-win strategy more in negotiation; basically, they could take the benefits of both into consideration.
2.1.3 Impact of Objectivity Difference on Negotiation
The objectivity in international business negotiation reflects the degree to which people treat any things. West people especially Americans have a strong objectivity on the understanding of issues. At negotiation table, Americans don’t care much about relationship between people. They don’t care if the status of the opponent is equal to theirs. They make decision based on facts and data, not people. The saying that public things use public ways is a reflection of American objectivity. Therefore,Americans emphasize that Businessmen should distinguish people and issues, what they are really interested in is the actual problems. But in the other parts of the world, it is impossible for them to distinguish people and issues
2.2 Impact of Negotiating Style Differences on International Business Negotiations
The impacts of negotiating style differences on international business negotiation mainly exist in negotiating method and negotiating structure. Take the negotiation between America and China as a example, since the oriental care more about unity in thinking, they method they adopt in negotiation is from unity to parts, from the big to little, from the abstract to the concrete, that is to say they should each agreement on general terms, then begin to talk about the concrete terms. And usually not until the end of the negotiation do they make compromise and promise based on all the items, and then to reach agreement. The west people are influenced by analytic thinking, so pay more attention to logical relations between things. They consider more about concrete things than integrity. And they tend discuss the concrete items at the beginning of negotiation, so they often resolve the price, delivery and issuance respectively at first. And they may make compromise at every detail, so the final contract is the combination of many little agreements. The negotiating structure is linked with cultures. Negotiating structure mostly refers to the number of the participants. In business negotiation, the foreign delegation is usually composed by 3-5 people, while the Chinese one could be more 15 people. The foreign negotiators not only need to negotiate with their counterparts but also need to discuss with related person in charge or the government. When making the final decisions, the Chinese negotiators often discuss the results repeatedly from the workers to the board to avoid being decided by a single person. That results from the influence of collectivism. So they often said to their partners: Let us think about it. Let us discuss it. But the west negotiators could make the final decision without going back for discussion. That because their admire individualism and hard working. They have strong independence. They would carry on according to the best ways after knowing their goals. What’s more, most west people think that they have the ability to deal with the negotiation situation on their own. And truly, they are brave enough to take responsibility.
2.3 Communication Process
In the international business negotiation, communication process is very important, and it contains two parts, verbal communication and nonverbal communication
2.3.1 Verbal Communication
Verbal communication mainly refers to language communication. Language is important to international business negotiation, because it is how we reach out to make contract with others. We all agree that language play an important role in communication with people from different backgrounds. However, we may be less aware that cultural literacy is necessary in order to understand the language. If we select language without being aware of the cultural implications, we may not communicate well and even send the wrong message. Therefore, during the international business negotiation process, a good interpreter can help overcome the cultural barriers.
2.3.2 Nonverbal Communication
Simply, nonverbal communication refers to communication without the use of words. Even if you know the language, cultures differ in the use of nonverbal communication. Cultural differences may cause negotiators to play differently on facial expressions, gestures, and the other kinds of body language.
Researchers have shown that the words a person speaks may be far less important than the body language used when delivering the verbal message, and they estimate that less than 30% of communication between two individuals within the same culture is verbal in nature. Over 70% of communication takes place nonverbally. Some other scholars even say that 90% of the information is actually transmitted through nonverbal means. We are not sure of that. But one thing we are sure is that in face-to-face communication nonverbal signals are just as important as verbal message.
Take head movement for example, generally speaking, in most cultures nodding one’s head is seen as agreement while shaking one’s head is seen as rejection. But, in Bulgaria, for instance, people may nod their heads to signify no and shake their heads to signify yes. A lowered head in the western culture can signify defeat or uncertainty. In Asian cultures lowering one’s head may mean acceptance
2.4 international Thinking and Analytic Thinking
Easterners lay stress on harmony and entirety, while westerners on analysis and part. In other words, easterners view things from whole to part, while westerners from part to whole. Chinese people have been accustomed to dividing one issue into two opposite parts that are considered as interactive and interdependent; they hold the view that human and nature are an indivisible unity. With regard to the relationship among people, they appeal to collectivism and trust their own intuition. For thousands of years, this kind of thinking pattern has occupied a dominant position in China and becomes the core of cognition and communication. Therefore, Chinese people are used to making a comprehensive survey of the overall situation first, and then thinking over details. They depend on intuition and are imbued with imagination. People call this “round thinking mode” (Jia Yuxin, 1997).
Western thinking pattern is noted for logic, analysis, and linearity. By adopting the method of bisection, westerners consider subject and object, material and spirit diametrically opposed, i.e., things just have two possibilities, either this or that, when thinking, westerners usually start from parts, and then think about the whole situation, which is called “linear thinking mode”(Jia Yuxin, 1997,p.100).
2.4.1 Concrete Thinking and Abstract Thinking
Basically, people in any country have concrete thinking pattern and abstract thinking pattern. However, due to the difference in history and culture, each nation has its emphasis on either of them. On the whole, traditional Chinese culture is known for concrete thinking while western culture for abstract thinking. Based on experience, concrete thinking depends on analogy, metaphor and symbol. Ancient westerners adopted abstract thinking to deal with problems by means of concept, judgment, and reasoning.#p#副标题#e#
2.5 Negotiation Structure
Cultural differences also impact on negotiation structure. Different countries have different negotiation structure, so do the team. The team in eastern countries feel that time is abundant and humans should not follow the timetable blindly. For example, Chinese people are famous for the length of their negotiations; they spend much time in the non-task sounding stage of negotiation to establish rapport and get to know their partners. Chinese people usually discuss many issues at one time, without an apparent order, they may skip from one issue to another and they may also come back to points which in the eyes of their Western partners have already been settled and concessions are made or all issues at the end of the discussion.
However, the team in western countries regard time as money and would like to set fixed agendas. Western countries are emblematic of the “time is money” culture, where time is a scarce resource. People would try to achieve its optimal allocation between the competing ways of using it. They establish timetables and deadlines. Norms tend to be strict regarding time schedules. When a discussion with someone lasts longer than planned, they will politely stop the conversation, in order to keep their schedule.
2.6 Negotiation Style
Negotiation practices differ from one culture to another and cultural difference can impact on “negotiation style” --- the way people from different cultures conduct themselves. Here, we divide negotiation style into the eastern negotiation style and the western one. China and Japan are the typical countries of the East, while America the West.
Chinese culture is a high–context culture. In a high-context culture, the emphasis on communication is indirectness and ambiguity. Most of the information is in the context while little is in the explicit part of the message. The external environment, situation and non-verbal behavior are crucial in understanding communications. People depend heavily upon covert clues to interpret a message given under a certain context. And also, Chinese negotiators also look forward to long-term partnership. They are not in a hurry to push for an agreement. Generally, there is a slow start to “warm up”, and then it is followed by some tentative suggestions.
In the international business negotiation, saving face and achieving harmony are more important factors than achieving higher sales and profits for Japanese. As far as the Japanese negotiators are concerned, they try to build up a long-term relationship in the course of negotiation. Therefore, they prefer personal contacts in an informal way. For them, trust is more important than agreements. The reason why there is a low ratio of success between American and Japanese negotiators lies mainly in this point. Besides, Japanese negotiators try their best to avoid an open conflict between both parties. Consequently, they often ask a third party to function as go-betweens. In this way, they can prevent an unpleasant feeling from coming up on both sides
The impression Americans leave us on the negotiating table is flexibility, straightness and zest. They never express themselves with vague words. They say “Yes” or “No” directly. Consequently, during a negotiation they like people speaking without reservation. When any conflict appears in a negotiation, Americans aim to solve the problem and never mind if you have adequate proof and dispute with them. Meanwhile, if you want to ease up the atmosphere and respond with a smile, it will be reckoned as insincere and as if you are in the wrong way. In addition, Americans respect human rights, and they can not tolerate throwing stones at a certain person behind him. American negotiators often act in an impersonal way ---“business is business” is their view, American negotiators are always mission-driven---anxious to bring parties concerned into agreement, and they have little interest in building up any relationship. Furthermore, American negotiators like to be openly challenged for the negotiation, and they think it is quite normal if they run into any conflict with any party concerned.
2.7 Decision-making Process
Decisions are made differently in different groups. They may be made by individuals or by the group as a whole. Some groups accept the decision of the majority of the group members, but other groups seek consensus among group members and will not make a decision until all members have agreed. Knowing how your counterpart makes decisions is vital to help gauge the approach you should take to persuade him or her. Take Japan and America as typical eastern and western countries for example.American people make decisions based upon the bottom line and cold, hard facts. They believe not people, but statistics and performance count. Business is business. In American view, a business negotiation is a problem-solving activity, and the solution is a deal that suits both parties.
The decision making process is just like a cost-benefit analysis applied to all parties who would be touched by the decision. A decision is considered right because it produces the greatest net benefit when all the costs and benefits to all the affected parties are taken into account. So the Americans usually list the possible effects and estimate the magnitude of their costs and benefits as accurately as possible.
In general, decision-making in Japan is a communal affair requiring unanimous approval by management. In this decision-making style, everyone must be convinced, not just the key decision-maker. Upper-level managers do not make fast, on-the-spot decisions. Most Japanese companies use some form of a system of decision-making known as document system. In the lower layer of management, usually at the section level, a manager drafts a proposal after achieving consensus within his own group.
The proposal is circulated to the heads of other sections and departments. These heads study the proposal. If they approve, they stamp their name seals on it. If they disapprove, they either refuse to stamp it or put their seals on it upside down. Then the document is passed up through the different
levels of management until it reaches the president. If everyone stamps the proposal, it becomes a company policy. If not, it is usually sent back to its originator with certain suggestion. Thus all the middle managers in companies using this system perform almost all the planning functions for the company, deciding what will be done, when and how.
Chapter Three Coping Strategy of Negotiating across Cultures
The culture differences in cross-cultural communication have various impacts on operation of enterprises. These differences will influence negotiation and management of transnational operation; what’s more, it may have bad effects on the harmonious relationship between our country and foreign countries. Maybe that will lead to the missing of market opportunities, the increase of trade cost and the low efficiency of company management. So, it is really necessary for us all to eliminate and avoid disadvantageous effects.
3.1 Making Preparations before Negotiation.
The negotiators must make good preparations if they want control the development of negotiation successfully in the complex situation. Only do they make good preparations can they make changes freely according to the situation of negotiation and avoid the happening of conflicts. Because the international business negotiation involves extensive aspects, more preparations are needed. The preparations often include the analysis of the negotiators themselves and the opponents; the constitution of negotiation group, elaborating the negotiating goal and strategy and going on imitation negotiation when necessary. When making preparations, you should try to know the opponents while you analyze yourselves. Analyzing yourselves mainly refers to studying if the project is feasible. To knowing about the opponents means understanding their strength such as credit status, the policy、 business customs and regulations of their countries and the
conditions of their negotiating members and so on.
3.2 Overcoming Cultural Prejudice
Tolerating different cultures and overcoming cultural prejudice contribute to better communicating with each other and understanding each other. West people often think that they are powerful, capable and experienced, so sometimes, we need to recognize then and give then some good comments. We should learn about the foreign cultures before negotiation and accept and understand their cultures in negotiation, because every country regard their own cultures as a matter of course and hope that their culture could be recognized and accepted.
3.3 Conquering Communication Barriers
Two trains running at different railways in the opposite direction will collide with each other; maybe this is the best arrangement for trains. But to communication between people, there won’t be communications if people go ahead according to their own ways. Trains will collide with each other if they run on the same railway at the opposite direction. But if we measure by the objective of people’s communication, only we meet each other, can we have communication and friendship. In negotiation, sometimes we can’t make much progress although we have talked for long time. And sometimes both parties are not satisfied. After thinking, that is caused by communication barriers which happen easily in cross-cultural negotiation. We should make sure if there appear communication barriers, if so, we must overcome them. Generally speaking, we should pay more attention to the following three communication barriers in cross-cultural negotiation: the communication barriers caused by culture background of both; the ones caused by misunderstanding of the contents and information from the partner; the ones caused by not being willing to accept the opponent’s contents and ideas.#p#副标题#e#
Chapter Four The reasons of the different culture
Since there are so many cultural differences, then conflict is inevitable.A cultural diversity have many reasons, in a word, eastern and Western cultures have different cultures, historical background, it will inevitably bring some thinking, behavior, and many other differences, even conflicts. Many factors influence the differences of cultures.
4.1 Value Differences
Every culture has own unique value systems, this culture think that is good, another culture might consider bad, but it does not mean that this values are advanced, and the other values are behind. For example, parents in western countries tend to cultivate children to be independent. They encourage their children to deal with their personal things by themselves. Parents in eastern countries, however, always spoil their children. They always help their children finish some things which the children have the ability to cope with by themselves.
4.2 Political Differences
Political differences mean that policies and regulations of the political system standardize the behavior of the people’s role so that people under different political system have different political concepts. Take America and France for example: the power of American president is strictly limited by the Constitution and the other two authorities---Congress and Supreme Court. While France has to expand their president’s power due to their own conditions.
4.3 Economic Differences
Economic difference is a reflection of the cultural differences due to economic factors. For example, people in the western developed countries have the rich life, and receive the high education so that they pay more attention to the quality of life, and they have good safety awareness. But in the Third World, especially the developing countries, people are more concerned with the problem of food and clothing. So this is reflected in cultural differences
Chapter Five Negotiation Skills: correctly to deal with the cultural differences
As we all know, different countries have different cultures. According to the culture of different countries adopt different strategies in the international business negotiations, in order to ensure that negotiations can be expected to achieve, decision-making must based on cultural differences, learn some international business etiquette and practices, respect each other's cultural practices, so negotiations will be guarantee successfully.
Negotiational tactic is objective. Unless we understand it, we can apply it. Specifically speaking, take Chinese negotiators for example, we must achieve the following several points: First, understanding English has always being identified as a key successful factor for Chinese Business. Second, Chinese businessmen have to know the culture differences between the East and the West so that they not only can know their own negotiation’s mentality but also their rival’s mentality. In addition,Chinese businessmen should respect other parties’ customs, in equal and friendly foundation. Third, both parts should attempt to conciliate the bilateral cultural difference. Studying and respecting the foundation of adversary’s cultural difference requires both sides to exchang ideas, to stand in adversary’s angle and standpoint to think question.
Chapter Six How to negotiation and to deal with cultural differences in negotiation
6.1 1.Pre-negotiation
The pre-negotiation stage begins form the first contact between the two sides whose interest in doing business with each other,we should keep an open mind to recognize and accept the difference, because information gathering will to some extent determine the success and failure of the negotiation.
6.2 .Face-to-Face Negotiation
In this stage, I think negotiators should adopt some proper communication skills to reach an agreement. And we know conflict tend to be more difficult and complex when involved negotiators with cultural differences. But conflict is unavoidable during the process of negotiation. To make things worse, poor communication may kill deals. So we should try our best to overcome the cultural differences on negotiation, and utilize some effective communication to gain the common interest. In view of its significance in negotiation, communication is at the heart of the negotiating process.
6.3 Post-negotiation
Finally the business negotiation is brought to the end stage. The contract is being drawn up and to be signed. However, writing and wording of the contract in itself is a kind of negotiating process. For word meaning and business value might differ due to the cultural factors involved in the business negotiation, form of agreement is preferred differently from culture to culture.
6.4 Cultivation of Cross-cultural Awareness
Without both parties effort negotiations can not be achieved, so we should cultivate cross-cultural awareness to avoid some unnecessary matters.
First of all, a negotiator needs to have a reflection upon his own cultural system. He needs to be aware of his own values, beliefs and social norms. He also needs to be culturally sensitive and always bear in mind that a foreign negotiator is different from natives not only in physical features, but also in motivations, beliefs and values.
Then, show respect for the other party. Show respect for the other party will smooth the situation and speed the negotiation process. Anyhow, the result of the establishment of cultural fellowship does not mean overcoming a culture but means a third culture created by the former two (Li and Zhang, 2004).
Finally, accept other’s culture. For example, we usually believe in this saying “you will be treated how you treat others”. But in the cross-cultural setting, it’s not this way. What you want to be treated is not an American want to be. Therefore, we should believe that “how they treat other is what we will do” (Acuff, 1995). Try to behave like others do may bring you inconvenience, but just try it and it’s sure that the other part will encourage and appreciate your action.
Conclusion
“Social Customs varies in different countries”. In a word, cross- cultural communication will meet the problem of culture differences surely. In turn, culture differences also influence all aspects of international business communication. To avoid or to resolve the culture differences is a huge task in international business negotiation. In order to step into the international market successfully, we must have the awareness of culture differences, acknowledge culture differences and understand different cultures. Try to know yourself and know them. What’s more, we should respect different behavior of businessmen under different culture background, and then we could reduce unnecessary conflicts resulting from not respecting the opponents. It is beneficial for both to form an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation, reduce culture differences and turn disadvantages into advantages and benefits. Thus, we could avoid conflicts and obstacles, then to promote communication and harmony in international business negotiation.#p#副标题#e#
Reference
[1]George Yule. The study of Language[M].Cambridge University Press,2000:202-209
[2]Harvey, Paul,,“The Oxford Companion to English Literature” [M].London: Oxford University Press.1978:23-25
[3]Philip R Harris, Managing Cultural Differences [M]. Gulf Publishing Company, 1987:234-260
[4]Wang Cheng fa. A Glimpse of Foreign Land [J]. Kaifeng: Henan Univesity Press, 2000:58-62
[5]陈俊森.《外国文化与跨文化交际》北京:华中理工大学出版社,2000:2-6
[6]查尔斯·李龙与牛仔——《美国人眼中的中国商人》北京:中国海关出版社,2004
[7]韩承敏.《跨文化人力开发与资源管理》[M]南京:东南大学出版社,2003:340-342
[8]孙长征、黄洪民、吕舟雷. 《公共谈判与推销技巧》]青岛:青岛出版社,2001
Appreciation
As acknowledgements for my paper, only I — the writer is responsible for the shortcomings. I much acknowledges my thanks to all my teachers, especially to Miss Liu Mifan, my supervisor, who has provides me support, critical ideas and careful suggestions.
I also want to thank my family who always give me time, encouragement and secretarial services, especially my parents.
Finally, my classmate and friends, who provided thoughtful and thorough reviews of my paper, must be acknowledged.
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你是否在想,小学年级的英语论文,该如何写好呢?下面是读文网小编带来小学英语论文范文模板,希望对大家有帮助。
浅谈外语教学中的素质教育
在外语教学中,如何加强素质教育,我认为以下三点至关重要。
一、在教学中渗透民族自强意识
长期来,外语教学只注重语言文字的教学而忽略精神素质培育这是一个不小的失误。有人预言,21世纪是中国的世纪,怎样来理解这个预言?我曾赴澳教学一年,在昆州一所中学任教中文,也即他们的外语。绪论课是澳州教师上的,他不客气地开宗明义:“我们要好好学习中文,因为中国地大物搏,人口很多,是很好的商品市场和劳动力市场,你们学好了中文可以去那里图谋发展。”澳洲人也认为21世纪是中国的世纪,但仅仅是从他们的发展角度来寻找市场和劳动力的,如果我们的莘莘学子拼命学习外语,不过想求取一个外国老板的洋饭碗,那还会有什么“中国的世纪”呢?而新世纪的脚步声确实已非常急促了,因此,在外语教学中渗透民族自强意识已是十分紧迫和必要的了,我们一定要让学生懂得,他们生在一个文明古国,祖先为他们留下了深厚的文化积淀而并非只有贫穷;勤奋刻苦、改造世界本是我们民族的优秀精神,千万不要数典忘祖,只有具备了民族自强的意识,才能走到哪里都是一个大写的人。
二、在教学中增强文化素养的培育
过去,外语教学的习惯做法是:将课文当作生字、句子与语法的载体,而课文的背景、语言风格以及文章本身的内涵却很少被重视、被开掘。我们在课堂上把学生的注意力引到典型句型的分析上,像推导数学公式那样把复杂的长句一步步解开,我们乐此不疲,却也活生生地把一些很好的范文支解得零零碎碎,更何谈理解、体味、欣赏和学习了。这也是我们的学生外语语法学的很多,而外语语言修养却普遍水准不高、语汇贫乏、缺少风采的原因。如何扭转这些由应试教育带来的弊病呢?从目前学生外语学习的状况来看,只要教与学的观念改变了,我们完全有条件在教学中着意增强文化素养的培育。
条件之一,我们有很好的教材。以高中三册教材为例,涉及的文体、内容和文章的语言风格、时代背景还是相当广的,有十八、九世纪文学名著选摘、有伟人的演讲、有异国风光的描述和有趣的科普读物,还有褒扬真、善、美的诗与戏剧,其中自然包含着许多外国历史的、人文的、文学的、科学的甚至经济的知识,我们只需在课堂上匀出一定时间,有意把课文的内涵展开,那么,我们的外语教学就会变得立体而丰富,就会产生无穷的意趣,学生求知的触角便可作多方位地延伸。
条件之二,我们有好学的学生。以中国学生的勤奋、刻苦和聪明,如果能使他们意识到探求外语背景文化的重要性的话,我想他们会提出更有质量的问题。
因此,外语教学有责任也有条件努力去做这方面的引导和培养。
三、运用多种手段,提高学生外语应用能力
应试教育的一个弊病,就是培养了不少高分低能的学生。虽然考试、选拔现在是,将来也还是一种知识水准的衡量手段,但分数、学历不完全证明能力。能不能将所学知识转化为对社会的贡献,这才是最根本的目的,这一点,现在已越来越成为社会共识了。联系到外语教学的现状,最紧要的问题,当然就是如何运用各种教学手段,使学生在应用能力和交际能力上有所提高。我所在的南洋模范中学,生源好,教学硬件好,教师自身知识结构也较好,为了更好地调动学生积极性,培养他们的应用能力和交际能力,我们组织了学校英语广播和英语热线电话。我在中午电话热线开播以后,不停地接到学生的电话。有一些是询问课后作业的解答,更多的是只想与我用英语交谈交谈,话题涉及很广。有位女学生在电活中告诉我:她参加了美国“肯得基”杯口语竞赛,被选为荣誉礼仪小姐,但她担心自己相貌平平,会否见了总裁后被刷下来……接听这些电话,我感到很快慰。
学生在十分放松的情境中,积极的表达欲使他们的口语能力有超常发挥,清楚、流利,也较得体。当然,我也不时地对他们口语中的缺陷、错误加以纠正。这种教与学的方式十分和谐,学生不仅欢迎而且感到很有效。由此推想,我们是否也可以在课堂上创设一些好的情景,给学生更多动脑、动口的参与机会?
回想起来,我曾上过一堂“答记者问”式的复习课。我坐在学生中间,不时地回答他们的各类问题,有时也抛出一、二个思考题,让他们稍作思考后回答我,或者我将一个较难的问题“挑动”学生争辩。我发现这种讨论的气氛特别能加强逻辑思维。为了回答或驳倒对方,必须特别清晰地归纳思路和调整语言方式,学生的注意力异常集中。尽管他们用英语提问或口答尚感吃力,但冲出第一步总是学会走路了。
看过小学英语论文范文模板
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下面是读文网小编整理的电子商务英语论文范文,以供大家学习参考。
Recent development of information technologies has brought us new possibilities for teaching and learning classical art and humanities in several different ways. Image plays a key role here. In learning classical Japanese poetry, it is quite important to examine original books and manu******s because even the published books were printed from the wood blocks of engraved words which were written with brush by, in many cases, the authors themselves. Not only the visual art works, but also the literary materials as such pose the problem of authenticity, and this problem itself is closely linked to the interpretation of the literary works and the life history of the authors. Yosa Buson (1716-84), a poet-painter, and his followers best represent this type of artists and must be studied with both texts and images they created.
Buson was a leading haiku poet of the 18th century and, with Basho and Issa, one of the great names in haiku. He was also a distinguished BUNJINGA (literati-style) painter, and perfected haiga or cursive sketch with poems as a branch of Japanese pictorial art. Buson read classics extensively and studied different styles of Chinese and Japanese paintings. Poetry and painting affected each other in his art. His poems were, diversely enough, rich in imagery, clearly depicting fine movements and sensual appearances of things, dynamic with wider landscapes, lyrical, sensitive to human affairs, romantic with hidden stories, graceful, and longingly time-conscious. Buson completed his own style of painting in his later years when he was using the name of Sha-In. Freed from the influence of China, he created genuine Japanese landscapes.
Two years after starting its creation, this site now receives more and more accesses from both Japan and abroad. In May 2000, for example, there were, in average, about 350 hits for the site per day, 45 different individual accesses to the English top page, and 17 different accesses to the Japanese top page. Some people leave notes in the guest book, and some other people prefer to send e-mails to the site author. These notes and mails are analyzed in terms of contents, interests, and gratification. Formative evaluation of the site is now conducted with college students. This site, when it is fully developed, is to be converted into a CD-ROM with upgraded still and moving images.
Abstract From the concept of the network university, we deduce its three basic infrastructures:the education center station, the high speed backbone and the user terminal network. we point out that the remote learning online at home will be the most important studying model in the future,so the HomeNet will be a necessary infrastructure platform for remote learning , in this paper we discuss the structure, the key technologies and connection media of HomeNet.
Keywords network university remote learning HomeNet
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下面是读文网小编整理的英语毕业论文提纲范文,希望对大家有帮助。
摘要:The thesis statement should be as specific as possible. By writing a specific thesis statement, you focus on your subject and give yourself and your reader a clearer idea of what will follow in the body of the essay.
your plan, and later in your essay, follow a logical order. The rule for writing is this: use your common sense and plan ahead. Do not leave the order of your paragraphs to chance.
How many types of order can be used in thesis writing?
What are they?
Ordering the Paragraphs within the Essay
The types of order often used in single paragraphs— time order, space order, and order of climax— can sometimes be used to arrange paragraphs within an essay. Essays about subjects that can be broken into stages, with each step discussed in one paragraph, should be arranged according to time. Space order is used occasionally in descriptive essays. A writer who wishes to save the most important or convincing paragraph for last would use order of climax. Or he or she might wish to reverse this order and put the most important paragraph first.
Very often, however, the writer simply arranges paragraphs in whatever order makes sense in that particular essay.
Expanding the One-paragraph Plan
An essay is like an expanded paragraph.For this reason, any plan for developing a paragraph can also be used to develop an entire essay. It is up to the careful writer to choose the pattern that is best suited to his or her purpose and to the kind of essay required.
Linking Paragraphs within the Body
Just as the sentence within a paragraph should flow smoothly, so the paragraphs within an essay should be clearly linked one to the next. As you write your essay, do not make illogical jumps from one paragraph to another. Instead, guide your reader. Link the first sentence of each new paragraph to the thesis statement or to the paragraph before.
Here are four ways to link paragraphs:
Linking Paragraphs within the Body
Repeat key words or ideas from the thesis statement.
Refer to words or ideas from preceding paragraph. Link the first sentence of a new paragraph to the paragraph before, especially by referring to words or ideas near the end of that paragraph.
Use transitional expressions
Use transitional sentences
Use all four methods of linking paragraphs as you write your essay.
Checklist
Narrow the topic to one that you can discuss fully and well in an essay.
Write a clear statement.
Brainstorm ideas to support your statement.
Choose some main ideas to support the thesis statement.
Write a topic sentence that expresses each idea.
Decide on a logical order in which to present the paragraphs in the body.
Plan the body of each paragraph, using paragraph development.
Write the first draft of your essay, linking paragraphs clearly to each other.
Check for unity, logic, and coherence; revise and rewrite as necessary.
Proofread for errors in grammar, sentence, structure, spelling, and mechanics.
Three Types of Common Errors:
Language/Ideas/Format
Consideration: How many kinds of specific errors you are likely to make in your writing? How to avoid them?
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下面是读文网小编整理的英语论文开题报告范文,希望对大家有帮助。
一、论文题目:classroom interaction and oral english teaching
二、研究现状:
对于课堂互动与英语口语教学之间的关系,国内的研究主要集中在:(1)构建主义模式 它是以构建主义理论为基础的互动模式,司洪海在《构建主义理论与英语口语教学》中从对现有教学模式的“反思”入手,探讨将构建主义引入英语课堂教学的必要性、可行性及其意义和作用。卢艳春和路雅琴在《构建主义与大学英语口语课堂教学》中则分别“从构建知识观”“构建学习观”“构建教学观”入手,强调以学生为中心的主动性、构建性。(2)角色扮演模式 徐志敏、王瑛在《大学英语课堂互动教学中角色扮演探究》中着重探讨了在角色扮演的互动教学中教师的作用,对指导教学实践具有重要的意义。而黄玉兰在《角色扮演引入英语专业口语教学中》从角色扮演是“多为互动英语口语教学模式的应用”探讨了角色扮演这一教学方法的目的、步骤和利弊等方面。(3)以学生为中心模式 这一模式被单独研究的较少,黄影秋在《以学生为中心提高英语口语课堂教学效果的探索中》通过对学生口语课堂学习存在的问题的分析,提倡“以学生为中心”,实现教与学的“双边互动”。并提出阐述如何运用其他“教学策略提高口语的教学效果”,促进学生交际能力的提高。而刘蓉在《谈英语口语课堂互动》中则提出了互动可以创造“以学生为中心的口语课堂和整体小组作业模式”,提高口语交际能力。(4)合作性学习模式 这种模式的研究较为普遍和盛行,它兴起于美国,在后来取得实质性的进展的一种教学理论与策略。黄艳在《合作性学习在大学英语课堂的应用》中提出了以下几种合作模式,从而的出该模式的优势所在。顾晓乐在《合作性学习与情景剧表演》中从情剧表演的角度来证明合作性学习的有效性。肖巧玲在《大学英语口语教学中的合作学习》中则通过合作学习在口语教学中的实践探究合作学习应注意的原则。而慕东文在《合作性学习的特点、目标、内容和实践策略》一文中,他用“人文精神和平等民主合作”原则,对待新的理念,指导英语口语教学。(5)情景设置模式 它主要是根据gillian brown & george yuled的语言情景对第二语言习得者的交际紧张、焦虑的研究表明口语情景设置不适当,会影响学生用目标语进行交流,进而强调进行口语教学情景设置的重要性。张舍茹、孙边旗在《英语口语教学的情景设置>>中就论述我们应注意“情景互动教学中应遵循的原则”,及如何设置“英语口语教学中情景设置的形式”两个小方面局部性的探讨了情景设置这种互动模式。孙久荣在《论英语口语课的情景教学》中对情景设置这个模式从宏观上进行了分类,进而得出“开放式情景”和“封闭式情景”,为情景设置互动模式研究开辟了一个小领域。
三、研究的目的及意义:
通过对目前已经发展起来并比较成熟的几种互动模式的归纳来看:关于人际互动这种互动模式在目前的互动性研究中被单独研究还比较少,没有被当作一种独立的模式应用到英语口语课堂教学中,它更多的是被贯穿到其他几种互动模式当中。因此,本论题认为它还有进一步研究的空间。
四、研究的理论依据和研究方法:
本论题将以教育心理学的理论为基础,以互动理论和构建主义理论为依据,运用归纳总结的方法对已有的研究进行宏观上的概述,从而引出本文论题,通过例证分析、验证人际互动模式对课堂英语口语教学效果的提高所具有的重要意义。
五、提纲:
introduction
chapter one definition and theoretical basis of interaction
1.1 definition of interaction
1.2 theoretical basis of interaction
1.3 some main interactive modes in the present classroom
chapter two the necessity and the principles of following interaction-teaching mode
2.1 the disadvantage of traditional oral english teaching mode
2.2 the necessity and merit of taking interaction-teaching mode
2.3 oral english interaction-teaching mode should follow the principles
chapter three personal interaction in the oral english teaching
3.1 the relationship between the teacher and students
3.2 two types of personal interaction
3.3 classroom climate
3.4 classroom size
chapter four the evaluation of the interactive oral english teaching mode
4.1 some principles should follow when evaluating
4.2 the concept of evaluating
4.3 the technology of evaluating
conclusion
六、参考文献
jonssen, dh..thinking technology: toward a constructivist design model [j].educational technolgy. 3 (1994): 34-35.
littlewood, william. communicative language teaching [m].cambridge: cambridge university press .1981.
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下面是读文网小编整理的英语文学论文范文,希望对大家有帮助。
Being distinguished form many greatest American writers, Hemingway is noted for his writing style. Among all his work , The Old Man and the Sea is a typical one to his unique writing style and technique. The language is simple and natural on the surface , but actually deliberate and artificial. Sometimes the simple style is made a little different. The dialogue is combined with the realistic and the artificial. The simplicity is highly suggestive , and often reflects the strong undercurrent of emotion. Occasionally , the author uses some figures of speech. Hemingway’s style is related to his experience as a journalist, his learning form many famous writers, and most importantly, his conscientious effort in looking for a style of his own, The influence of his style is great all over the world. The Old Man and the Sea is full of facts, most of which comes form Hemingway’s own experience. So the way to use facts is a very important writing technique in this novel. The fact in the novel are selected and used as a device to make the fictional world accepted. In the forepart of the novel, the are used to show the quality of Santiago’s life, and are narrated simply and naturally; while in the latter part of the novel, they are used form inside Santiago’s own consciousness and form part of a whole scheme of the novel.
Keywords: Facts; Simplicity; Artificial; Iceberg; Theory
中文摘要
在伟大的美国作家中,海明威以独特的写作风格而著称。在他所有的作品中,《老人与海》最能体现他独特的写作风格和手法。这部小说语言看似简单自然,其实包含了作者的精心揣摩和润色加工。有时为了突出某一部分,作者会采用长句代替短句。文中的对话内容真实、贴近生活,而表达形式则经过了艺术加工。小说简洁自然的语言背后隐藏了深刻的意义和感情。文中还运用了比喻、拟人等修辞手法,还名位的这种独特风格与他当过新闻记者的经历有关,这种风格对整个世界文坛产生了重要的影响。
《老人与海》这部小说运用了大量的事实,他们大多来自于作者亲身经历。海明威对这些事实精心选择,从而吸引读者的兴趣并使读者有一种身临其境的感觉。小说一开始用大量事实描写了主人公生活的环境,叙述风格简单自然,未加任何感情色彩。随着情节的发展,大量的事实主要被运用于主人公的心理活动中,而不是主要由作者来叙述。同时,这些事实构成了整个小说体系中不可缺少的一部分。
关键词:事实;简洁;加工;冰山理论#p#副标题#e#
Introduction
1. Writing characteristics of the Old Man and the Sea
1.1 Hemingway’s Writing Style and Techniques in The Old Man and the Sea
The Old Man and the Sea (1952) comes round at the finish of Hemingway’s writing career. With its vivid characterization, its simple language, and the profound implicating it carries, it stands out as one of the excellent books Hemingway’s former stature as the word’s preeminent novelist after Hemingway’s unsuccessful novel Across the River and into the trees (1950). The Old Man and the Sea earned its author the Pulitzer Prize in fiction for 1952, and was instrumental in winning him the Nobel Prize for Literature two years later. It is a short novel about Santiago, an old Cuban fisherman who has gone for 84 days without catch. Therefore the boy, Mandolin, who used to sail with him, is forced to leave him and catch in another ship. The old man insists on fishing alone and at last, he hooks an eighteen-foot, giant marlin, the largest he has ever known. But the fish is very powerful and disobedient. It tows the old man and his boat out to sea for 48 hours, with the old man bearing the whole weight of the fish through the line on his back. The old man, with little food and sleep, has to endure much pain and fights against his treacherous hand cramp. To his great excitement, on his third day at sea, he succeeds in drawing the weakened marlin to the surface and harpoons it. On his way home, he lashes marlin alongside his boat because it is too big to be pulled into the boat. But, unfortunately, the come across sharks in different numbers for four times. The old man fights to kill the sharks with as much might and many weapons as he can summon, but only to find a giant skeleton of his marlin left after his desperate defense. At last, Santiago, having lost what he fought for, reaches the shore and struggles to his shack. He falls into sound sleep, dreaming of Africa, and the lions again. His struggle wins him much respect.
Among many great American writers, Hemingway is famous for his objective and terse prose style. As the last novel Hemingway published in his life, The Old Man and the Sea typically reflects his unique writing style. This paper aims to discuss the writing style and techniques in The Old Man and the Sea. Of course, Hemingway has used many techniques in this novel, such as realism, the creation of suspense, monologue, etc. And this paper focuses especially on the language style and one of the important techniques-the way to use facts in this novel.
2.Writing of the Old Man and the Sea
2.1 Unique language style Old Man and the Sea
Hemingway is famous for his language. With much care and effort, he created a very influential and immediately recognizable style. “The style he created in his early work, such as In Our Time and The Sun also Rises, was almost too good. Like the style of certain painters, it tended to become a manner, rather than a flexible way of responding to experience and conveying fresh insights through words.” Among all his works, The Old Man and the Sea is the most typical one to his unique language style. Its language is simple and natural, and has the effect of directness, clarity and freshness. This is because Hemingway always manages to choose words “`concrete, specific, more commonly found, more Anglo-Saxon, casual and conversational.” He seldom uses adjectives and abstract nouns, and avoids complicated syntax. Hemingway’s strength lies in his short sentences and very specific details. His short sentences are powerfully loaded with the tension, which he sees in life. Where he does not use a simple and short sentence, he connects the various parts of the sentence in a straightforward and sequential way, often linked by “and”. In his task of creating real people, Hemingway uses dialogue as an effective device. It is presented in a form “as close to the dramatic as possible, with a minimum of explanatory comment.”Here is an example chosen from The Old Man and the Sea:
‘What do you have to eat?’ the boy asked.
‘No, I will eat at home. Do you want me to make the fire?’
‘No, I will make it later on. Or I may eat the rice cold.’
Here we can see that such interpolations as “he said” have frequently been omitted and the words are very colloquial. Thus the speech comes to the reader as if he were listening. Hemingway has captured the immediacy of dialogue skillfully and has made the economical speech connotative. But it is good to note that Hemingway’s style is deliberate and artificial, and is never as natural as it seems to be. The reasons are as follows. Firstly, in some specific moments, in order to stand out by contrast and to describe an important turning point or climax, the style is made a little different:
He took all his pain and what was left of his long gone pride and he put it against the fish’s agony and the fish came over on to his side and swam gently on his side, his bill almost touching the planking of the skiff, and started to pass the boat, long, deep, wide, silver and barred with purple and interminable in the water. The language in this one-sentence paragraph is different from other parts of the novel. Kenneth Graham has commented that the sentence builds up its parts in a carefully laborious sequence-“all his pain and what was left of his strength and his long gone pride”. It emulates the movement of the exhausted marlin and the physical strain of the old man. And it mounts to a heavy crescendo in the very un-prosaic inversion of adjectives-“long, deep, wide”-ending in the virtually poetic cadence, “interminable in the water.”The dialogue, too, is combined with the realistic and the artificial. Usually the content contains and the expression contains the artificial. In The Old Man and the Sea, the language style is very peculiar from Hemingway’s other writings. This is because the novel is an English version of the Spanish that Santiago and Mandolin would speak in real life. “Since we are meant to realize that Santiago and Mandolin could not possibly speak like this, since English is not his tongue anyway, we are more likely to accept other artificialities of the dialogue. Using the device of a pretended ‘translation’, which would be bound to stilt in any case, Hemingway can ‘poetize’ the dialogue as he wishes.”The speakers are distanced from readers to a certain degree. And while their language taking on a kind of epic dignity, it does not lose its convincingness. Even slightly strange exchanges like the following become fairly acceptable. For example:#p#副标题#e#
‘You’re my alarm clock’, the boy said.
‘Age is my alarm clock’, the old man said. ‘Why do old man wake so early? Is it to have one longer day?’
‘I don’t know’, the boy said. ‘All I know is that young boys sleep late and hard’.
‘I can remember it’, the old man said. ‘ I’ll waken you in time.’
The simple sentences and the repeated rhythms hit at the profundities that the surface of the language tries to ignore. Its simplicity is highly suggestive and connotative, and often reflects the strong undercurrent of emotion. Indeed, the more closely the reader watches, the less rough and simple the characters appear. In Death in the Afternoon, Hemingway uses an effective metaphor to describe his writing style: If a writer of the prose knows enough about what he is writing about, he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water.Among all the works of Hemingway, the saga of Santiago is thought as the most typical one to this Iceberg Theory. The author seldom expresses his own feelings directly, nor does he make any comments or explanations. On the contrary, he tries to narrate and describe things objectively and blend his own feelings harmoniously to the natural narration and description this gives readers a pictures compression, from which-the 1/8 of the iceberg above water, they can learn the implying meaning and feelings of the author- 7/8 of the iceberg under water. When Hemingway said of this story, “I tried to make a real old man, a real sea and real sharks”, he then went on to say, “But if I made them good and true enough they would mean many things.” So this novel has a great and significance conveyed by a compressed action. The core of the novel’s action is fishing. To the hero, fishing is not simply of contest in life. It contains profound philosophic meaning. In addition, two details-the baseball match and the hand wresting with the Negro, like fishing, symbolize the contention in life. They compensate and enrich the inner meaning of the main plot of fishing. So the simplicity of the novel is highly suggestive.
2.2 The Old Man and the Sea Writing Methods
Occasionally, the author uses such figures of speech as metaphor, personification, etc to describe details. Hemingway likes to us natural things to make metaphors. For example, he describes Santiago’s eyes as “the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated.”The metaphor reveals that the old man is closely linked with nature. At the beginning of the novel, a simile is used: “the sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent defeat.” Here Santiago’s eyes are contrasted with the patched sail, which symbolize defeat, as reveals Santiago’s unyielding character. So Hemingway has formed of narrative and dialogue, though natural and simple on the surface, is actually deliberated and artificial. It combines elements that are realistic with elements that are stylized and heightened. How Hemingway has formed such a writing style? The reason is related to his own experiences. “His use of short sentences and paragraphs and vigorous and positive language, and the deliberate avoidance of gorgeous adjectives are some of the traces of his early journalistic practices.” After leaving school at 17, he went to the Kansas City Star, which was one of the best newspapers in America at that time. He served as its eager and energetic reporter. As a journalist, Hemingway trained himself in the economy of expression. He once said that, during his working in Star, he had to learn to use simple sentences, which is very useful to him; and that the experience of working as a journalist would not do harm to a young writer, instead it is very helpful if he could cast it off timely. He laid stress on “speaking” with facts and objected groundless concoction in writing. His descriptions of details are full of factuality, and are as precise as news reports.
3.The import on Hemingway’s Old Man and the Sea
The influence of Hemingway’s language style is great. In the latter part of his life, Hemingway was known as “Papa Hemingway.” It refers mainly to his contribution to the development of a new writing style in America-the colloquial style. His simple word, short sentences and vividly colloquial language purity American novel. In England, which Miss Storm Jameson discussing “The Craft of the Novelist” in the January 1934 issue of The English Review, she advanced an explanation of Hemingway’s popularity:
It is this simplicity, this appeal to our crudest interests, which explains Hemingway’s success…In English at least his success has been largely with the intellectuals. Thy have praised his simplicity, his directness…When Hemingway’s death was reported on 3 July 1961, the obituary in The Tines pronounced pontifically: No history of the literature of our time will be able to ignore his achievement or his far-reaching influence…his last masterpiece, The Old Man and The Sea, he remained a solitary both in achievement and style…And Hemingway’s influence as a stylist was “neatly expressed in the praise of the Noble Prize Committee about ‘his powerful style-forming mastery of the art’ of writing modern fiction.”
Apart from the language style, which The Old Man and the Sea is famous for, the writing techniques in this novel are also worth paying close attention to. A very important one of them is the way to use facts. The main events of the story seem to be based on a real incident, which is described by Hemingway in an article about fishing in the Gulf Stream in Esquire for April 1936. So the novel of full facts, such as the habit of fish, the technique of catching marlin, the weather, the sea, and so on. But the power of the novel lies in the way to use these facts. Firstly the facts are selected. “Hemingway’s old man, boy, sea, fish, and sharks are not so much built up in our minds, detail by detail, facts by facts, as drive into our mind by the force and the sympathy with which the author himself shares in their imaginary existence.” Like any realist, he relies on selection. When the giant marlin finally surfaces, his tail “was higher than a big scythe blade and a very pale lavender above the dark blue water.” Sargasso weed is bleached and yellow by day; Tuna are silver when they jump out if the water, but blue-backed and gold-sides when swimming. Hemingway never described them with excessively, but choose some effective ones. He uses them with a sense of how colors shift and change in their relationship. Without selection, there can be no intensity, and compression.
4.The philosophical significance Old Man and The Sea
4.1The Old Man and The Sea by the message to people’s moods#p#副标题#e#
Secondly, the facts are used as a device to make the fictional word accepted. The novel is not simply a manual for us to study the technique to catch a fish or how to survive in a boat. The author tries to implicate people’s imagination in what is happening by appealing to our love of practical knowledge. This shows “the facts are fundamentally a device, a technique of reassuring our sense of everyday values.”So they can help to make us accept more readily what the author has invented and made more dramatic than in everyday life. Still take the use of color as example: The clouds over the land now rose like mountains and the coast was only a long green line with the gray-blue hills behind it. The water was a dark blue now, so dark that it was almost purple. As he looked down into it he saw the red sifting of the plankton in the dark water and the strange light the sun made now. These facts show readers the process of fishing, which mostly comes from the author’s own experience. From these facts, which are vivid, precise and terse, readers can learn a lot about how to catch a fish and can also feel as if they themselves were catching a fish. Then they will have the sense that what the author describes is real and believable. Therefore, as Kenneth Graham has said, many facts in the novel about fishing and about the sea have a double function: they satisfy people’s sense of the real word. And this is what underlies Hemingway’s famous statement that his intention was always to convey to the reader “the way it was.”
4.2The influence of the Old Man and the Sea
All in all, Hemingway’s language in The Old Man and the Sea is simple and natural on the surface, but actually deliberate and artificial. “The language is rarely emotional. Rather, it controls emotions: it holds them in.”The forming of this distinct style is related to Hemingway’s own experience. And the influence of this style is not only within America but also all over the world. The facts in the novel are selected and used as a device to make the fictional world accepted. Unlike other novelists who add allegorical meanings to their facts, Hemingway uses the facts simply and naturally, without any emotion. In the latter part of the novel, instead of being narrated by the author, the facts are used from inside Santiago’s own consciousness, and form part of a whole scheme of the novel. Besides what have been mentioned above, other techniques in The Old Man and the Sea, such as realism, monologue, the creation of suspense and so on, are also very successful. All these show Hemingway’s superb artistic attainments as a Nobel Prize winner.
Bibliography
1. Chang Yaoxin, “Chapter 14” in A Survey of American Literature. TianJin: Nankai University Press, 1987
2. Kenneth Graham, “commentary” in York Notes: The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: world Publishing Corporation, 1991
3. Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: world Publishing Corporation, 1998
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英语是一种语言,从语言学角度来看,学生在掌握一定数量的词汇与语法知识后,就要用来表达自己的思想、见解,这些落实到纸面上就是英语写作。为提高大家的英语写作能力和技巧,下面读文网小编为大家带来英语议论文写作方法附范文,欢迎大家学习!
Should Examination Be Abolished (取消)?
The examination system has come to be the main theme (主题)of modern education. One should take an examination andsucceed in passing it before he could be admitted, promoted or graduated. As it plays so important a role in the realm of education (教育的领域) it is under much criticism (评论) as to its validity (有效性) . People who are in favour of it try to develop this system more; those who are against it believe that such a system should be abolished. Should examination be abolished? In my opinion it should be.
Many people think that an examination is the only means to test knowledge, but, in fact, that is not true. A few questions given in an examination could by no means cover the whole field of the subject. Thus those who are able to answer them may be the poorest of the students and yet happen to know just a few points about that subject.
I'd like to say that, because of the existence of the examination system, students pay so much attention to gaining high marks, that they often forget the chief purpose of education. The so-called clever students devote (贡献) themselves to the study of textbooks only. They, of course, know nothing but the skeleton (梗概) of knowledge. The end and aim of education, however, is to enable students to learn how to live. To do this, students must get themselves to do all kinds of training, physicalas well as mental. The present examination system has discouraged students from making such an attempt.
Moreover, since the students try so hard to put their lessons into memory in as short a time as possible, psychologically (心理上来看), they soon forget the whole subject as soon as the examination is over. Surely this is one of the greatest wastes ever made in the history of civilization.
Lastly, in order to get high marks, there is a great temptation (诱惑) for students to cheat (作弊) in an examination. Indeed, such a practice becomes the means to the end. They cheat their teachers, their parents and also themselves. Such a tendency would impair (损害) our moral standards (道德标准) .
Therefore, I am of the opinion, in conclusion, that the examination system should be abolished.
以上就是读文网小编为大家带来的英语议论文写作方法附范文,希望对大家的学习有所帮助!
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小说是以刻画人物形象为中心,通过完整的故事情节和环境描写来反映社会生活的文学体裁。人物、情节、环境是小说的三要素。那么你知道小说用英语怎么说吗?下面来学习一下吧。
1. Fiction takes up a large slice of the publishing market.
小说在出版市场上占了很大的份额。
2. With one exce-ption his novels are shallow and lifeless things.
他的小说都是些肤浅沉闷的玩意儿,只有一本除外。
3. The various elements of the novel fail to cohere.
这部小说的各部分之间缺乏连贯性。
4. The scriptwriter helped him to adapt his novel for the screen.
编剧帮助他将其所著小说改编成电影。
5. Naomi's mothering experiences are poignantly described in her fiction.
娜奥米把她当母亲的经历字字辛酸地写进了小说。
6. D H Lawrence immortalised her in his novel "Women in Love". D.H.
劳伦斯在小说《恋爱中的女人》中把她塑造成了一个不朽的角色。
7. This adaptation perfectly captures the spirit of Kurt Vonnegut's novel.
这次改编非常好地抓住了库尔特·冯内古特小说的精髓。
8. "Dottie" is by far his best novel to date.
《多蒂》是他迄今为止最好的小说。
9. Men get more bad press in her new novel.
在她的新小说中,男人受到了更多的谴责。
10. This stupendous novel keeps you gripped to the end.
这部小说精彩到让你想一口气读完。
11. His fourth novel is a murder mystery set in London.
他的第四部小说讲述的是一起发生在伦敦的神秘谋杀案。
12. She had begun to be a little bored with novel writing.
她开始对写小说有些厌倦了。
13. W. Somerset Maugham's novel still packs an emotional punch.
威廉·萨默塞特·毛姆的小说仍具有强烈的情感冲击力。
14. He reverentially returned the novel to a glass-fronted bookcase.
他毕恭毕敬地把小说放回了正面装有玻璃的书架。
15. She is currently writing a sequel to Daphne du Maurier's "Rebecca"
她现在正在续写达夫妮·杜穆里埃的小说《蝴蝶梦》。
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小说家,谓小说的创作者,并以此为生的文学工作者。那么你知道小说家用英语怎么说吗?下面来学习一下吧。
fictionist
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