摘要:认知语言学是认知科学发展的产物,代表一种语言研究范式,是多种认知语言理论的统称。认知语言学的哲学基础是体验哲学,即把人们的日常经验看成是语言使用的基础,着重阐释语言和一般认知能力之间密不可分的联系,把语言认知作为人的整体认知过程的一部分来把握。

关键词:认知语言学;认知科学;语义;语法

现代语言学的研究表明,认知与语言有着千丝万缕的联系,但语言的认知研究作为一门独立的学科却是20世纪70年代末兴起的,80年代中期以后其研究范围扩展到了语言学中的许多领域,包括句法学、语义学、音系学、篇章分析等。1989年在德国召开的第一次国际认知语言学会议以及l990年创刊的《认知语言学》杂志,标志着认知语言学的学科地位得以确立。此后,认知语言学的发展非常迅猛,越来越多的学者开始从认知的角度来研究语言。

(二)认知语言学研究中的范畴理论

“范畴化”(categorization)可以说是人类最重要最基本的一种认知活动,是指人类在演化的过程中对外界事物进行分类或归类,使无序的世界变成有序的、分等级的范畴体系。这个过程(即范畴化的过程)就是认知,或者说是认知的第一个环节。范畴化使人类从千差万别万事万物中看到相似性,并据此将可分辨差异的事物处理为相同的类别,从而形成概念。在此基础上人类才能完成更复杂的认知活动,包括判断和推理。认知的发生和发展是一个形成概念和范畴的过程,它是一种以主客互动为出发点对外界事物进行类属划分的心智过程[1]。正如Lakoff所言:“没有范畴化的能力,我们根本不可能在外界或社会生活以及精神生活中发挥作用。”[2]

范畴化的现象很早便引起哲学家的注意,亚里士多德在《范畴篇》中系统论述了自己对范畴的观点,经典范畴观便是在此基础上形成的。20世纪60年代以来,心理学和人类学研究对传统的经典范畴观提出了大量的反证。维特根斯坦在《哲学研究》中提出了“家族相似”[3]的概念。维氏认为, 无法用一种共同的属性来描述一个范畴中的全体成员,只是在成员与成员之间存在部分的相似性,并以这种相似性的交织联结成范畴的整体;范畴的边界是模糊的、开放的;范畴内的各个成员的地位是不平等的。

维氏的“家族相似说”否认范畴的各个成员之间存在任何共同的本质, 向经典范畴观发起了强有力的挑战。20世纪70年代起,“家族相似说”被引入语义范畴研究。触发了哲学界、心理学界、语言学界对范畴化问题的重新审核。语言学家Labov和Rosch先后发表了他们对自然范畴的试验研究结果,把具有“家族相似”的这些自然范畴称为“原型范畴”[4-6]。一事物是否属于该范畴, 不是看它是否具备该范畴成员所有的共同特性, 而是看它与其原型之间是否具有足够的“家族相似性”。范畴化研究的巨大发展成为认知语言学得以产生和发展的重要基础。

论文关键词：认知生成语言学

论文摘 要：生成语言学的领军人物乔姆斯基始终把语法看作是语言的基础，始终遵守句法是独立于语义的，句法研究不应以语义为基础，形式必须独立于意义之外进行描述。认知语言学以语义为中心，将语义等同于概念化，认为语言的意义是一个认知结构。认知语言学认为语义才具有生成性，认为词法、句法不是自主的，是受功能、语义和语用因素支配和制约的。

1、认知语言学——语义内在论

认知语言学家对意义的研究也是沿着内在论方向进行的，与乔姆斯基一样都认为语言和认知存在于人们的头脑里，语义必须按照心理现象来描写。认知语言学家的一个重要口号是“Meanings are in the head(意义在人们的头脑里)”，这一观点就明确表明他们对语义的基本态度也是基于内在论的，与乔氏的内指性有某些共识。

认知语言学的最基本观点是：在世界与语言之间存在认知这一中介，语言形式是体验、认知、语义、语用等多种外在因素促动的结果;同时还认为意义是基于体验和认知的心理现象，不能脱离人们的身体特征和生理机制、神经系统。对于意义的看法，他们还有一个口号：“Meanings are on the embodied basis(意义基于体验)”。语言的语义是一个从语言表达到某些心理实体的映射。

认知语言学认为，人类语言是后天习得的;语言不是自治的而是基于体验和认知基础上形成的。因此，语义虽是存在于头脑之中，但其根源不是天赋的，而是来源于身体经验，人与客观世界的互动认知，来源于使用者对世界的理解，在推理过程中人的生理构造、身体经验扮演着重要的角色。认知语言学还认为，语言的意义不限于语言的内部，而是来源于人与客观世界互动的认知，来源于使用者对世界和文本的理解。意义取决于理解，产生于解释者主体与文本之间的辨证关系。在认知语言学家看来，人类这一最重要的认知特点正是他们与乔姆斯基理论在意义内在论上的根本差异之所在。

认知语言学说虽与乔姆斯基理论都研究心智，表面上看同属内在论，但对于心智的来源、表征的方法、研究的内容、得出的结论等方面存在一系列根本性分歧。尽管两者都持语义内在论，但认知语言学家与乔姆斯基所主张的先天的和自治的内在论存在巨大差异。前者的最基本观点是：在世界与语言之间存在认知这一中介，语言形式是体验、认知、语义、语用等多种外在因素促动的结果;同时还认为意义是基于体验和认知的心理现象，不能脱离人们的身体特征和生理机制、神经系统。乔姆斯基那种先天的、自治的内在论正是认知语言学批判的靶子。

语言作为文化的组成部分和载体，“产生和演进是人类活动的结果(董广杰1999：14)。”多样性的语言存在于多样性的文化之中，这种文化的差异，就可以通过语言，尤其是语言表征结构的不同，而得以体现。本文就是分别从语言的各个表征层面——词语、句法、篇章，对汉英语言的差异做出分析，从而探究隐藏于语言差异之中的中西文化的不同，进一步通过分析这一差异，以期为母语是汉语的英语学习者的语言把握和跨文化交际能力的提高，提供一点借鉴和参考。

1.重个体与重群体的差异

中国传统哲学以人为中心。不论是孔子的“天地之性，人为贵”还是孟子的“万物皆备于我”都强调人的首要性。中国人受传统哲学思想的影响，万物相生相克，有机联系。自古以来，汉民族就把自然与人看成是一个和谐而有机的整体，即所谓的“天人合一”。群体文化，是中国的人文精神的一贯主张，这一主张，自然引发了对集体观念，和社会人格的推崇，而反对个体人格及个人主义。含蓄，往往体现在中国人的说话与文章之中，经常是从很远的相关外围问题入手，先做充分的铺垫，之后才进入主题，这样才觉得够谦虚，够儒雅，不唐突、有余地。人的主体意识和重要性，在中国人的意识中是相当强的，而讲英语的西方民族从最初就把自然界置于与人对立的位置，使自然界成为被人所改造、征服的对象，西方思想中，人生来就是要认识自然、统治自然的，人是主宰世界的万物灵长。个人价值由可独立于群体的自我而体现，个人价值被置于整体之上。他们更加重视客体意识，思维的目标往往指向外界，探求外部世界对人的影响。另外，在中国，古代社会强调的是国家、皇权的权威;现代社会强调的是集体主义和集体的力量。而个人在社会中的地位、作用和意见一直是被弱化的。这种文化、思维方式的差异，反映到语言上就是汉语喜欢用人的词做主语，而英语则趋向于用非生物的词做主语。在语篇结构中，叙述视角喜欢用第一人称复数。

大学是学生们向往的美好象牙塔，学生们不仅仅可以在这里学到非常有用的知识与交际能力，更加能够提高学生的综合素质。而英语作为世界主要的交流沟通语种，一直都是作为大学的基础课存在的，但是由于英语语言在学习的时候常常出现学习的僵化现象而使得教师与家长尤为的关注。

1、结束语

综上所述，英语的僵化现象是在教学中不可避免的，只有让教师、学生以及学校多方面配合才能塑造出完美的学习环境与良好的学习习惯，让学生爱上学英语，从根本上解决僵化现象。

英汉两种语言的表达方式、语言习惯的不同，决定了它们所表达的相同事物之间存在着明显的差异性。然而，由于语言之间的相通性、相融性，也决定了不同语言的相同事物之间又在某些方面存在着必然的共同性。英、汉姓名的异同就是其差异性与共同性的具体体现之一，而在其中所蕴涵的深远的文化底蕴是值得我们回味与咀嚼的。本文就英汉姓名的文化内涵及其翻译方法进行粗浅探讨。

1.姓名的一般翻译原则

姓名的翻译要遵循两个原则：“名从主人原则”和“约定俗成原则”。“名从主人原则”是指在翻译姓名时，要以该姓名所在国语言的发音为准，而不管该姓名是直接从原文译出的，还是从其他文字转译的。换言之，就是译哪个国家的姓名就要以哪个国家的音为准。如Skolovski“斯克沃夫斯基”(波兰语发音)，而不译作“斯科路夫斯基”(英语发音)。“约定俗成原则”是指有些姓名在长期的翻译实践中，已经有了固定的译法，就应该继续使用下去，即使有的不够妥帖，甚至错了，但因多年来已为人们所公认和熟悉，这样的译名也该继续沿用，无须另定译名。如英国著名作家George Bernard Shaw正确的汉译名应是“乔治·伯纳·萧”，但过去该作家的名字一直被译作“萧伯纳”，变成了一个典型的汉名，我们也只有错误地沿袭下去了。

古希腊神话是古希腊人民智慧的结晶，它的想象力丰富多彩，激发了人们探求古希腊文明的欲望和热情。马克思曾经指出：“希腊的神话和史诗是发展的最完美的人类童年的产物，具有永久的魅力”。希腊神话是西方文化宝库里的璀璨明珠，对西方国家社会生活和人们的思维方式等各个方面均产生了极其深远的影响。它不但是西方文化的源泉，而且深深地根植于西方各国的语言文化之中。因此，对希腊神话的深入研究是了解和研究英语语言文化的关键。

一、 希腊神话对英语语言的影响

英语语言文化有两个主要源头——古希腊罗马神话和圣经。英语的词汇从神话故事中吸取精髓，将神话故事中的词汇、神名、传说故事演化，由此大大地丰富了英语语言。希腊神话以其丰富的想象力、丰富的故事情节流传于世。

希腊神话对英语词汇的影响主要体现在词汇和习语方面，主要形式有直接引用、转义借用、派生新词和词根化。这方面的例子有：Flora是古希腊神话中的花神。她嫁给了西风之神Zephyr，婚后她的丈夫送给她一座满是奇花异草的花园。Flora和Zephyr生活幸福，感情甜蜜，每当他们一起在花园散步时，沿途的百花都会竟相开放。Flora 在现代英语里指代“植物”，衍生词有flower，flour，flourish，floral，florist等;神话中人间的王子那喀索斯(narcissus)是个长相英俊的美少年，经常喜欢独自一人在森林中漫步，他脱俗的外表和气质吸引了森林女神艾蔻(echo)的注意，渐渐的她爱上了这个王子，每天都跟随在王子的身后，但是却无法表白，因为她遭到了天后赫拉的诅咒终生只能重复别人话语的后三个字。艾蔻本是天后赫拉的侍女，活泼爱动且多嘴多舌，在赫拉和天神宙斯的婚礼上，因为艾蔻的原因导致宙斯在结婚誓言中没有说愿意一生一世只爱赫拉一人而遭到了赫拉的恨意，婚后的宙斯没有收敛拈花惹草的天性令赫拉头痛不已。传说赫拉在天宫中正为此郁闷，拨开云雾看到了人间森林中艾蔻跟踪那喀索斯的一幕，遂心生一计，惩罚艾蔻永远得不到所爱人的心。后来那喀索斯忍不住问艾蔻“你是谁呀?”，艾蔻只能不断的重复“是谁呀，是谁呀……”而遭到那喀索斯的讨厌，最后艾蔻抑郁而终，死后变成了山谷中的“回声”，而那喀索斯也被赫拉施以诅咒，爱上了自己水中的倒影，而变成了一株“水仙花”，后来的他的名字还引申为“自恋，自我陶醉”的意思;著名运动品牌耐克的商标也来源于希腊神话故事，耐克(Nike)是神话中的胜利女神，这一品牌正是源于女神名字的引申含义。

源自于希腊神话中的习语更是不胜枚举，如Pandora’s box(潘多拉的宝盒)，天神普罗米修斯心地善良同情人间疾苦，不顾众神的反对，偷偷教给人类许多生存技巧和知识，后来甚至把圣火火种带到了人间造福千千万万的平民百姓。这让一直持反对意见的主神宙斯知道了，宙斯勃然大怒而对普罗米修斯和人类都施加惩罚。宙斯先是把普罗米修斯捆绑到了高加索山峰上，日夜折磨他的身心，每天白天都让鹰啄食他的内脏，然后又施加法术，让其夜晚再长出来，日以继夜。宙斯为了报复人类，亲自创造了只有美丽的外表但是却没有头脑思想又充满了好奇心的美女潘多拉，然后他又制造了装满邪恶、苦难、疾病、战争等的盒子让潘多拉带到人间，但是希望女神在盒底偷偷放入了希望的种子。宙斯让普罗米修斯的弟弟爱上了潘多拉而结婚，但是却在新婚之夜诱惑潘多拉打开了盒子，潘多拉惊慌失措连忙把盒子合上，却把希望留在了盒中，后来这个习语意为“灾难的根源”;Achilles’ heel(阿喀琉斯之踵)，阿喀琉斯是神话中海洋女神忒提斯和人类的孩子，是半人半神的英雄，故事源于荷马史诗《伊利亚特》。因为是人和神的孩子，所以他不能像神那样可以永生，所以她的母亲忒提斯在他刚出生即把他浸入冥河河水中让儿子成为刀枪不入之身，但是由于脚后跟被母亲双手捏着而没有浸到河水，成为了他唯一的弱点，此事在特洛伊之战中被对手知道而丧命，后来这个习语意为“致命的弱点”;Apple of discord(不和的根源)，故事源于不和女神艾瑞斯的一只金苹果，看不惯人们友好幸福的不和女神制作了一只写有“送给最美的女神”的金苹果，引起了天后赫拉，智慧女神雅典娜和爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒的争夺。由于各执一词，她们找到了特洛伊王子帕里斯裁决，为了能获得这“最美女神”的虚荣，她们各自向王子承诺地位、财富、智慧与美女，后来阿芙洛狄忒许诺的美女让王子最为动心。这就是希腊斯巴达王后海伦的被抢夺说导致的特洛伊之战，也是由“一只苹果”而引发的战争，因此apple of discord意思就是“不和的根源，发生纠纷的事端”。而故事中的美女海伦因为是这场战争的导火索也衍生出了“Helen of Troy”这一习语，意为“祸端，红颜祸水，倾城美人”;随着东西方文化的交融，在我国每年过西方“情人节”的人不在少数，人们都对那个胖嘟嘟精灵可爱的身后背着箭篓的小爱神丘比特印象深刻，可是要是问道这个节日的背后的故事恐怕了解的人就会寥寥无几了。丘比特是希腊神话中的私生子，他的身世也暗示了但是社会现状丑陋的一面。他的母亲是希腊神话中的爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒，她在罗马神话中的名字更为著名：维纳斯，他的父亲是战神马尔斯。阿芙洛狄忒与马尔斯都是宙斯的孩子，是兄妹关系，这一乱伦爱情也体现了希腊神话母体之一：乱伦。宙斯风流成性竟然爱上了自己的女儿——爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒，但却遭到了女儿的强烈反抗，激怒了宙斯，宙斯遂把她嫁给了天神中相貌最丑陋的神匠赫菲斯托斯。由于对生活的不满，产生了兄妹之间的不伦之恋而生下了盲孩丘比特，因为先天的缺陷，天神怜悯赋予其掌管爱情和婚姻的能力，天神赐予他一只铅箭一只金箭，当他把铅箭射向人们的时候相爱的人就会分开，当他把金箭射向人们的时候人们则会相爱。丘比特爱玩闹是个永远长不大的孩子，经常胡乱射箭，因此产生了习语Love is blind意思就是“爱情是盲目的”。

二、 希腊神话对英美文学的影响

希腊神话不仅是希腊文学的摇篮，而且对欧美文学有着深远的影响。现代社会被广为流传的希腊神话或传说大多来源于希腊文学作品。古希腊大诗人荷马的两部伟大的史诗巨著：一部是《伊利亚特》，一部是《奥德赛》包括了绝大部分的希腊神话。分别描述了古希腊人和特洛伊人交战攻打伊利亚特城的经过和希腊军队在返回的途中所遇到的许多不可思议的见闻;闻名遐尔的古希腊三大悲剧诗人埃斯库罗斯、索福克勒斯和欧里庇得斯流传下来的 34 部悲剧中有 33 部都以神话为题材。这其中著名的作品有《被缚的普罗米修斯》、《俄狄浦斯王》和《美狄亚》;后世的诗人文学家用神话故事作为创作素材的更是恒河沙数，从乔叟到莎士比亚、弥尔顿、济慈、丁尼生、雪莱、拜伦、朗费罗、艾略特、庞德等人，无一不从神话中获得灵感，撷取思想和题材，创作出了许多不朽的名篇。譬如莎士比亚的《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》和长诗《维那斯与阿多尼斯》，弥尔顿的《失乐园》，雪莱的《解放了的普罗米修斯》，济慈的《阿波罗颂》、《希腊古瓮》，艾略特的《荒原》，庞德的《诗章》等等。《罗密欧与朱丽叶》、《老人与海》、《基督山伯爵》等现代作品以及极具有影响力的电影《泰坦尼克号》、《特洛伊》、《诸神之战》、《诸神之怒》、《爱丽丝梦游仙境》等也是以神话故事的母题为创作栏板。神话故事曲折丰富的故事在给读者美德享受的同时也激发了艺术家们丰富的想象力。《基督山伯爵》是发货著名作家大仲马的一部脍炙人口的作品，作者用艺术手法表现了希腊神话中报恩与复仇的主题。在故事中男主角埃德蒙·唐代斯是一名聪明善良的年轻大副，有理想有抱负，但同时也遭到了众多嫉妒他的爱情、事业的小人的算计，这些人有社会底层也有所谓的三层社会，他们互相勾结，暗算了少年得志的唐代斯使他无辜入狱，但在入狱后唐代斯机缘巧合结石了神父法里亚，法里亚博学多闻因为政治原因入狱，但是同时他又掌握着一个关于宝藏的惊天秘密。在神父的帮助下唐代斯分析出了自己被迫害的真相。神父在狱中把毕生所学都传授给了唐代斯，使他从外表到气质都发生了彻底的转变。后来在意外中，唐代斯得以离开暗无天日的牢狱并且得到了宝藏开始了他的报仇与报恩，在弘扬人性善良的同时揭露了所谓上层社会虚伪的嘴脸。最后他与爱人一起杨帆远航开拓新生活;《爱丽丝梦游仙境》是由英国作家查尔斯·路德维希·道奇森(Charles Lutwidge Dodgson)以笔名路易斯·卡罗(Lewis Carroll)出版的儿童文学作品。作品体现了希腊神话中的探险和冒险的主题。故事后来被改编成了广受欢迎的3D影片。在故事中主角爱丽丝偶然掉到了兔子洞中，开始一段奇妙的旅行，故事中的动物都能讲话都在做着不可思议的事情，爱丽丝同动物朋友们一起经历了奇妙的探险旅程，故事想象力丰富，成为了一代又一代孩子们在人生中最先接触的文学作品之一。后来故事还衍生出了医学词汇Alice Syndrome，意为爱丽丝综合症，其症状为病患通过自己的观察感觉事物忽大忽小，甚至产生时空扭曲等特殊视觉效果，多发于儿童时期。要充分了解英美文学，熟读希腊罗马神话是很有必要的。希腊神话以丰富的哲理和想象力在文学史上划下了绚烂的符号。

作为一名英语教师，本人在多年的教学中发现，在词汇的学习中，学生往往感觉枯燥乏味，而且易于遗忘，最后会对词汇的记忆产生烦躁情绪和抵触心理。如若在讲授过程中添加语言文化知识，不仅提升学习趣味性而且也加深了词汇学习的记忆，让学习者在知其所以然的情况下接受语言知识，促进跨文化交际。希腊神话的故事性、哲理性对英语语言文化，甚至西方语言文化都产生并将继续产生深远影响，对西方生活的方方面面的影响也是非常值得研究及深入探讨的，她深深的植根于西方文化的血液中，是每一名语言学习者不可逾越的文化源头。

认知语言学研究的重点之一是认知活动和过程。文化翻译是再创造的过程，是译者对原著的认知活动。从认知过程来看，认知语言学关注创造性以及体验性，这一理论认为，认知过程不同，会产生不同的翻译结果。同时，翻译与文化密切相关，离开文化背景的翻译很难取得成功。因此在翻译教学中要切实加强文化意识培养，充分认识到认知语言学对文化翻译教学的影响。

一、认知语言学及其翻译观

认知语言学是对大脑中相关语言机制进行研究的学科。认知语言学形成于20世纪70年代末，在80年代到90年获得了较快的发展，已经变成为当前新兴的主流语言学流派之一。通常情况下，学者们认为认知语言学的主要来源于以下三方面，这三派的相关学者也被看成是英语国家在认知语言学界的重要代表人物：(1)从转换生成学派中分裂出来的部分生成语义学家，例如Lakoff以及Langacker等人。(2)从功能或认知角度对语言进行研究的相关学者，例如Dirven以及Taylor等，这些学者认为利用较为普遍的认知方法对语言的功能以及形式进行研究，能够使得人们对语言表达中的认知机制进行更深入的研究。(3)对认知进行研究的相关人类学家、哲学家以及心理学家等，主要包括了Gibbs、Johnson以及Putnam等学者。国内知名学者王寅对国内外知名的认知语言学家相关理论进行了研究，给出了如下定义：认知语言学是一门新兴的跨领域学科，强调通过自我认知以及身体经验、借助知识结构以及认知方式等，合理地解释隐藏在语言事实中的认知规律。认知语言学认为，翻译是在现实体验的形势下，译者作为认知主体，凭借自身所参与的多种互动，在对原文本进行透彻理解的基础上，在译作中将原作者所刻画的现实世界以及认知世界反映出来。认知语言学十分注重体验以及认知所发挥的制约性作用，关注作者、文本、译者以及读者间存在的多重互动关系，期待达到“翻译的和谐性”以及“解释的合理性”。在翻译过程中，译者会受到从事翻译活动的相关认知主体之间互动性的影响。好的翻译虽然存在着译者的积极创作活动，但必须坚持“创而有度”，在创作过程中不能过分发挥，所以认知语言学的翻译观应该是“追求平衡”的。可见，认知语言学的翻译理论能够为翻译教学带来更好的启迪。

二、认知语言学理论中的文化模型理论教学

认知语言学的经验主义认知观通常将语言能力看成是人们所具备的认知能力中必不可少的一部分。对语言结构而言，它和人类的主体经验以及概念知识有非常密切的关系，由于语言使用者在描写或陈述事物的过程中通常不简单地限定于客观陈述，通常会用更加自然、丰富的意义来描述它们。比如，人们在描述早餐的过程中，不仅会说自己在早餐时间吃什么，而且还会描述早餐的样式、味道等，这些内容都是人们自己的体验和感受，他们能够很好地体现人们对客观世界的认知。人们在日常生活中会碰到、经历多种现象，而且还会在这些方面储备数量巨大的经验以及思维概念，也就是语境。在认知语言学中，通常将属于某种既定领域的所有语境或认知体现叫作认知模型，而且还提出了与大多数认知模型并不是完全相同的、和人们生活以及文化有密切关系的、在人们的认知过程中不断整合的模型，这种复杂的完形结构被称为文化模型。文化模型对人们的认知模型(Ungerer F，SchmidH.J.2001)发挥着决定性作用。以中国人的早餐(breakfast)为例，它是和馒头、米粥以及咸菜等等这些食物紧密地联系起来的。这是因为，长时间以来，我国人民业已形成了自己独特的早餐文化，这也是一种文化模型。但是，对英国人来说，他们在“早餐”方面“breakfast”并不会和这些事物联系起来，而是会想到面包、牛奶等食物和饮料，这是英国人在早餐方面的“文化模型”。相似的案例也适应在从未到过中国的美国人，他们可能不会存在丝毫和中国春节相关联的概念，这是因为，庆祝春节不是美国人的文化，而且也没有这方面的经历。所以，对美国人而言，可能没有任何中国人如何庆祝春节的认识，这也是他们在这方面的认知模型。然而，在这些美国人和中国人试图通过交流来理解中国人如何庆祝春节的过程中，他极有可能会套用相似的认知模型，如庆祝圣诞节这种认知模型，试图更好地了解中国人庆祝春节的情况， 这也是不同的文化模型之间的碰撞。

三、文化翻译教学分析

在文化翻译教学的问题上，这个课题显得颇为复杂，不但牵涉到诸多理论问题，而且还具有较强实际操作意味。文化模型理论能够科学合理地指导译者站在认知语言层面开展翻译教学。当前很多语言哲学家都将语言和现实之间的关系看成了语言和文化之间的关系，假如没有文化承载语言的相关意义，语言将徒具形式。要使使得译者和读者更好地把握和体会词意，就要深入分析它所承载的文化信息。例如，commonplace，它的汉语意思是“平平常常的”，假如运用common-or-arden variety来代替commonplace，就能够看出它承载着英国的相关文化信息;假如运用garden-variety来替代这个词语，它能够体现出美国文化的相关信息。所以，不管是翻译理论教学，还是翻译实务教学，都要高度重视译入语背后的文化因素。在翻译理论教学的过程中，不仅要开设和跨文化以及文化密切相关的课程，教授相关的理论知识以及翻译技能，而且还要让学生从文化层面认识文化翻译，这样才能使学生从总体上把握以及体味源语言作品体现出来的文化内涵，增强学生的翻译水平。

四、文化翻译教学的注意事项

在翻译教学中，要以认知语言学中的文化模型理论为依托，这样能够使教师向学生呈现的翻译理论以及翻译案例更加形象和具体，而不会显得空洞无味，能够让学生通过文化翻译教学，更好地掌握语言知识点，理解翻译实质意义。翻译中存在着“不可译性”以及“可译性”，这两个概念是相对的，其中，难以把握的概念是“不可译性”它们一般都具有较为特殊的异质性，在语音以及文字方面有着自己的结构性特征，内容涵盖音、形、义(意义)、意(意象和意境)等许多方面。从这些文化翻译内容在不同语言间的转换过程来看，这些“丧失”都是难以避免的。因此，如果运用文化模型理论来解释它们，就比较容易理解这些翻译现象。运用文化模型理论有助于教师更好地指导学生，从而让学生准确地理解翻译理论，准确地判断翻译内容的文化特征。

学习了文化模型理论后，学生就能够很好地认识到，绝对“忠于原文”仅仅是一种翻译的理想状况，在两种语言转换过程中要在一定程度上放宽“信”以及“忠”的尺度。从翻译过程来看，“意义对意义”被看成是较为笼统的翻译，就算“等值”转换，也不能完全和原著相吻合。以英语中的语势(force)为例，可以用叠字来获得相应的语势，从而更好地体现出声形美，但英语没有叠字，因此不能获得相应的语势。例如：“风萧萧兮易水寒，壮士一去兮不复还。”在这一句中，“风萧萧”是名传千古的绝句，假如将其翻译为“the wind blew and blew”，读者就会觉得笨拙、拗口，不能获得较好的翻译效果;假如将其翻译为“the wind blew desolately”，也只能认为“基本达意”。通常情况下，语势都是在独特的意境及巧妙的遣词造句中形成的，更能体现文化意义以及含蕴，但要想达到“等效”翻译的效果，却比较困难。

把认知语言学引入翻译教学，能够使学生更好地通过认知过程的变化，掌握翻译技能，成为更出色的翻译家。文化是语言得以持续发展的稳步动力和基础，因此，教师有责任让学生理解、把握以及运用“认知——体验——再现”规律，提高自己的文化翻译能力。

以象形为基础的汉字，其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。

今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文：汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下，希望能够够帮助到大家:

汉字与汉文化的关系

中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世，这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分，其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵，积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智，其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。

1、汉字与风俗文化

人是群居动物，人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行，长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习，渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一，是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态，源于社会生活，随着社会的发展而变迁。

任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯，汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久，但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词，真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。

汉民族的风俗中，最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的，贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年，那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代，有一种猛兽叫“年”，逢新旧岁之交，就出来糟蹋庄稼，伤害人畜。一次，它又跑出来为非作歹，被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了，到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际，就贴红联，放鞭炮，拢柴火，把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说，其实“年”字，最初为“农作物生长周期”之意，由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初，“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象，是收获的象征，所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期，庄稼成熟之时，人们不免要庆祝一番。从此，每当四季轮回一次之际，就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向，这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱，久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日，即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来，年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。

任何一个汉字，都是一幅构思巧妙的图画，蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性，渗透到人类生活的每个角落，并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变，与时俱进。

2、汉字与诗歌

以象形为基础的汉字，其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用，视觉形象鲜明，有助于启发我们形象性的联想，因此用汉字记录的诗歌，就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面，读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性，意境含蓄优美，是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。

《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝，基本都是四言的，而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来，大体上是六言加上兮字，兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如：

蒹葭苍苍，白露为霜。

所谓伊人，在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》

余幼好此奇服兮，年既老而不衰。

带长铗之陆离兮，冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》

古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言，如律诗，绝句，五古，七古等(七古例外，有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句，有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句，也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字，如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》：“城阙辅三秦， 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句，每句五个字，长短相同，字数相等，整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字，如苏轼的《题西林壁》：“横看成岭侧成峰，远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目，只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句，形式整齐。字字如诗，句句如画，无限的意蕴孕于其中。

对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶，是指说话或写作时，某些文字，在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间，抑扬顿挫，形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》：

国破山河在，(仄仄――平平――仄)

城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)

上下两句平仄、节奏相对，每句有三个节奏点，平仄相间，抑扬交错，节奏鲜明。

对仗的文字相互衬托，互相照应，使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上，对偶的文字彼开此合，彼收此放，声音抑扬，和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点，也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞，除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字，复叠等，使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。

3、汉字与对联

对联又称楹联，采诗词曲赋骈文之精华，是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格，在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同，平仄相反。如：

墙上芦苇，头重脚轻根底浅。

山间竹笋，嘴尖皮厚腹中空。

“墙”对“山”，“芦苇”对“竹笋”，“头”对“嘴”，“脚”对“皮”，“根”对“腹”，是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”，“轻”对“厚”，“浅”对“空”，是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”，“底”对“中”，是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词，而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同，虚实相当，字数相等，而且结构相应。当然，对联中也存在宽对，如：青山有幸埋忠骨，白铁无辜铸佞臣。

对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一，讲究对仗与平仄，声律抑扬和谐，因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性，公开性，形式灵活。随着社会的发展，对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面，如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流，但却有旺盛的生命力，是汉文化的活细胞。

由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的，汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色，当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根，本身有极其丰富的内涵，是我们探究汉文化，研究汉民族的绝好材料。

新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由，调解社会矛盾，维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式，自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文：The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!

The essence of neoliberalism（新自由主义的本质）全文如下：

As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?

This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.

To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.

That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.

The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.

The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.

The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.

Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).

In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.

This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).

Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.

Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.

These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.

And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.

Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.

The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.

But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.

How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.

(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.

(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.

Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的：母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!

母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下：

〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。

〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略

引言

阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。

例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。

既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。

认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。

研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。

从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解；

但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。

对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。

Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。

Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。

一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。

形式和语言认知体系与文本理解

许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。

Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。

在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。

正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。

结论

母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。

Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.

第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。

这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。

经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。

例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。

确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。

最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。

此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。

总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。

在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。

it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写，例如信息技术：Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。

下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文：and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!

and的理解与表达全文如下：

and是英语中使用频率极高的连词，用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ，试就and的用法进行归纳， 以利于读者理解与掌握。

一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子，可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如：

Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)

They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语，我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)

如果连接两个以上的词语，通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调，可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时， 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如：

I like eggs，meat，rice，bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。

All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳，做各种各样的事情。

The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。

有些用and连接的词语，次序是固定的，不能随意改变。如：

men，women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。

二、表示目的 在口语中，and常用在go，come，try等动词后连接另一个动词，表示目的。此时and相当于 to，不必译出。如：

Go and see!去看看!

Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。

三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后，常用and连接一个简单句，表示条件与结果的关系， 它们在语法上是并列关系，但在意义上却是主从关系，也可译为“如果……就……”。如：

Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard，you will live happily.如果你努力工作，你就会活得愉快。

Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话，你就会见到他。

四、表示承接关系 and用在句首，起承上启下的作用， 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等，也可不译。如：

And what's this?那么这是什么呢?

And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。

五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组，后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then， 可译为“然后”。如：

Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来，然后步行爬上第15层楼。

Go along the street，and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走，然后在第三个路口向右拐。

六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词， 动作同时发生，前一个动词表示姿势 或状态，后一个动 词表示伴随动作， and 相当于while，可译为“边……边……”。如： They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。

The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。

七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句，带有因果关系，此时and相当于so， 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如：

She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈，于是哭了起来。

It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气，因而人人都很忙。

八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句，第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明，可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如：

If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康，你就得少吃食物——同时，你还得多进行运动。

Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢，还要穿上你的旧衣服。

九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时，相当于but，但语气较弱，可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如：

I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多，而且运动得不 够。

They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉，但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。

十、表示强调，加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词，表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如：

The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀，笑个不停。

They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。

She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我，哭得越来越厉害。

十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语，这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如：

He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。

When C

hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前，耶稣出生时，许多人，无论贫富，都给他礼物。

十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词，前者可译为“加”，后者则不译。如：

What's one and two?一加二是多少?

There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。

十三、and用于固定词组或结构中如：

Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。

The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。

I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天，因为它很凉爽。

生产力经济学是研究社会生产方式统一体中的生产力及其运动规律的经济学分支学科。 研究社会生产力发展运动规律的学科。 把人们对生产力认识的注意力从过去局限于生产力要素分解引导到从生产力要素的构成和结合上来把握生产力，从生产力要素不同的构成和结合方式上去求得最佳的经济效益的一门新兴科学。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文：AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS。仅供大家参考!

AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS（衰老和生产力经济学家）全文如下：

Abstract：-Economists' productivity over their careers and as measured by publication in leading journals declines very sharply with age. There is no difference by age in the probability that an article submitted to a leading journal will be accepted. Rates of declining productivity are no greater among the very top publishers than among others, and the probability of acceptance is increasingly related to the author's quality rather than the author's age.

It is well known that productivity declines with age in a wide range of activities. Lehman (1953) suggests an early peak in productivity in a variety of scientific and artistic endeavors, and Diamond (1986) documents the pattern for several scholarly pursuits. Levin and Stephan (1992) provide clear evidence that this decline exists even after careful attempts to account for individual and cohort differences. Fair (1994) finds declines in physical ability among elite runners, as does Lydall (1968,pp. 113 passim) in physical abilities of the population generally. In this study we examine productivity declines in our own field. The main new results arise from our use of two different types of information, the equivalent of household and establishment data, to study the stone field over essentially the same period of time. Section I discusses the general results on aging and productivity, whereas section II presents evidence of the importance of heterogeneity.

I. Declining Productivity with Age

Using the American Economic Association (AEA) Directory of Members, we identified tenured economics faculty at 17 top research institutions and obtained the years of their Ph.D. degrees.[1] With the citation index of the Journal of Economic Literature we replicated portions of the curricala vitae of each of the 208 economists currently in the economics departments of those institutions who received Ph.D. degrees between 1959 and 1983.[2]

To measure productivity we construct three indexes, combining papers published in refereed journals. Prior research suggests that, at least in terms of salary determination, the returns from nonreferred publications are quite low Sauer (1988), so that we ignore such publications in calculating these measures. I1 weights an article by the journal where it appears based on citations to that journal, using values generated by Laband and Piette (1994). This index distinguishes strongly among journals. For example, the Journal of Political Economy has a weight of 59.1, whereas Economic Inquiry has a weight of 7.9. In constructing I1 we use the weights associated with the decade in which the articles were published. I2 distinguishes somewhat less among journals by assigning all articles in the nine "core" journals identified by Laband and Piette a value of 1, whereas all other journals are valued at 0.5.[3] Finally, I3 gives all papers a weight of 1. Coauthored articles were given half credit, consistent with Sauer's (1988) findings on the economic returns to coauthorship.[4]

We measure the change in productivity over the life cycle by the percentage change in the number of publications from 9-10 years past the Ph.D. to the periods 14-15 years and then 19-20 years after. For most of the elite economists the base period is equivalent (accounting for publication lags) to the time of tenure, when one might expect that incentives to produce are at a peak. Using two-year publication records at each point reduces the effects of noise in the performance measures. One might argue that still other scientific life-cycle mileposts (e.g., attaining a full professorship) should be accounted for too (and to some extent the 14-15-year point does this). But our main purpose is simply to provide detailed evidence on the relationship to age, and our data are not sufficient to infer the impact of every possible milepost.

Table 1 contains data on productivity loss by Ph.D. vintage measured by each of the three indexes. If we consider I1 and I2, the two indexes that take journal quality into account, the decline appears to be quite substantial. Between years 9-10 and 14-15 elite economists as a group lose 29 to 32% of their output. From years 9-10 to 19-20 they lose 54 to 60%. In other words, productivity losses are on the order of 5 % per year from the time of peak productivity. However, the losses do not appear to accelerate over these 10 years of the economists' work lives. The loss from year 10 to year 20 is approximately twice that from year 10 to year 15.

Another way to study the age-productivity relationship is to examine journals rather than individuals. The first row in each pair of years in table 2 shows the ages of authors of full-length refereed articles in several leading journals (American Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, and Quarterly Journal of Economics).[5] The median age of authors in the 1980s and 1990s was 36. Scholars over age 50 when their studies are published are a minute fraction of all authors in these journals. Creative economics at the highest levels is mainly for the young. That is as true in the 1990s as it was in the 1960s, although the age distribution of authors does seem to have shifted slightly rightward in the late 1970s.

The second row in each pair in table 2 shows the age distributions of random samples of the membership of the American Economic Association in years near those for which the authors' ages were tabulated.[6] The distributions are heavily concentrated between 36 and 50. Decadal variations reflect rapid expansion of American universities in the middle and late 1960s, stagnation in the 1970s and much of the 1980s, and a possible fragmentation of the profession in the 1980s as specialized associations expanded. A substantial percentage of AEA members is over age 50 implying that older economists are greatly underrepresented among authors in major journals relative to their presence among those who view themselves as part of the economics profession.[7]

Among the several groups of physical scientists analyzed by Levin and Stephan (1992) the decline of productivity (high-quality publishing) with age was very pronounced. McDowell's (1982) small samples of scholars in a variety of disciplines suggest less rapid declines in productivity with age (in publications unweighted by quality), with the sharpest declines and earliest peaks in the "hard" sciences, and later peaks among English professors and historians. The evidence from our two very different types of samples of economists and economics publishing that account for the quality of publications suggests that, for whatever reason, economics is at least as much a "young person's game" as are the physical sciences.

II. Heterogeneity in Declining Productivity

The evidence in section I documents the decline in productivity at the sample means. Information on the age-productivity relationship at the extremes of the sample is interesting in its own right and might help shed some light on the possible causes of the apparent decline in productivity with age. The simplest test compares productivity losses among the top early performers with that of the entire sample of economists at elite institutions. Among the top 10% of early producers the mean values of I1, I2, and I3 at year 20 were 64, 50, and 22%, respectively. These means are quite close to those listed for the entire sample in table 1. Thus on average early promise seems to be sustained in this sample. Of the 12 top researchers on whom we have 20 years of data, five were still among the top dozen producers at year 20.

These conclusions are confirmed when we examine the entire sample. For each index Ij, j = 1, 2, 3, we estimate b0 and b1 in

Multiple line equation(s) cannot be represented in ASCII text. (1)

Table 3 reports the parameter estimates. For all three indexes productivity in year 20 is positively and significantly related to productivity in year 10. There is also substantial productivity loss. The joint hypothesis that b0 = 1 and b1 = 0 (i.e., no productivity loss) is rejected (F-statistics of 134, 152, and 39, respectively). Productivity loss is least severe in I3, which weights all journals equally, regardless of quality.

If productivity losses were less among economists with high early productivity (high Ij,10), b1 would be negative. In fact, for two of the three indexes the estimated b1is effectively zero. We cannot reject the hypothesis of a linear relationship between late and early productivity. Only for I3 does it appear that productivity loss is higher for top early producers, and even here the effect is quite small. An economist in the top 10% of this sample at year 10 loses only an additional 0.5 (unweighted) paper compared to an average researcher in this sample at year 10. The very top producers in this elite sample keep on producing high-quality research, but at a slower rate. Those who were not at the top early in their careers slow down as rapidly as the top people, but their slowdown leads them to publish increasingly in lower quality outlets.

Another way of examining heterogeneity is to look at how authors of different quality free in the publication process conditional on their efforts. We obtained data on a random sample of initial submissions to a major general journal during a four-month period in 1991. (Some of the data were initially supplied by the journal's office for use in Hamermesh (1994).) Refereeing at this journal is double-blind, so that the chance that referees (though possibly not the editors) were affected by authors' reputations is reduced. The ages of the authors of these 313 papers are measured as of 1993 to account for the probable two-year average lag between the submission of a paper and its publication.

The simple fact in these additional data is that acceptance rates at this journal are remarkably constant by author's age. The probabilities of an article being accepted are 0.122, 0.114, and 0.123 in the three age groups 50, respectively.[8] On average there is no decline with age in the acceptance rate of papers submitted to this journal.[9] Probits on the acceptance of a submission that also included variables indicating whether the author was a member of the AEA, was in a top 20 department (as listed in Blank, 1991), was resident in North America, or was female, and the author's prior citation record yield an identical conclusion. The declining presence of older authors in top economics journals does not occur because older authors who keep submitting papers suffer higher rejection rates.

The probits included interaction terms between indicator variables for age and the extent of citations. (Low-cited economists were defined as those with fewer than 10 citations per year, well-cited with at least 10.) As figure 1 clearly shows, acceptance rates for each age group differ sharply by citation status. Comparing authors age 36-50 to those over 50, it is quite clear that the degree of heterogeneity increases with age. This appears to be less true in comparing the oldest to the youngest group, but that inference is due mainly to a very small sample. (Only six authors under age 36, the future superstars of the profession, were well cited.) The general tenor of the combined results from this sample is that the profession signals to less able scholars that their work no longer meets the profession's highest standards, and most of them respond by reducing their submissions to the highest quality journals.

III. Conclusions

We have followed the careers of economists and measured the demographic characteristics of publishers in leading journals. The evidence seems quite clear that publishing diminishes with age, especially publishing in leading journals, at rates as rapid as in the physical sciences. Indeed, remarkably few older people publish successfully in the scholarly outlets on which the profession places the highest value. As economists age, those who were the most productive early in their careers are among the few "survivors" still contributing to scholarship through the leading scholarly outlets.

Whether this relationship is due to natural declines in capacity or decreased incentives to produce is extremely difficult to discern. Unlike athletes, where it is likely that pure physical deterioration causes the reduction in productivity with age, among scholars even the fairly subtle facts that we have uncovered can be marshaled as support for each of these competing hypotheses. Without direct observation on how scholars' use of time changes as they age, we are unlikely to be able to distinguish between explanations of the declining ageproductivity relationship in science.

REFERENCES

Berger, Mark, and Frank Scott, "Changes in U.S. and Southern Economics Deparment Rankings over Time," Growth and Change 21 (Summer 1990), 21-31.

Blank, Rebecca, "The Effects of Double-Blind versus Single-Blind Reviewing," American Economic Review 81 (Dec. 1991), 10411067.

Diamond, Arthur, "The Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Mathemati cians and Scientists," Journal of Gerontology 41 (1986), 520-525.

文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准，可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文：美国文学史。仅供大家参考!

美国文学史全文如下：

Abstract:

America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.

My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.

Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature

摘要：从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。

我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开， 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。

关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学

American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.

The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.

America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.

1. Colonial and early American literature

(1). Travelers and Explorers

When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).

Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.

(2) Pilgrim settlements

Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."

The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)

The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)

Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.

People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.

One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.

2. 18th century—the Age of reason

(1) The Age of reason

In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.

Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.

Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.

And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.

During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.

(2) Early National Literature

During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.

The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.

3. The flourishing of American literature in 19th century

From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.

(1) Early Romantics

In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.

Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.

(2) The Transcendentalism

“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.

Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.

(3) High Romantics

Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.

There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).

Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.

Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.

Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.

Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.

4. Local Color And Realism: A New Flavor to American Literature

After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.

(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain

Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).

(2) Rise of Realism

“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.

William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.

There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.

After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.

Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.

5. Modern American Literature

The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.

(1) Modern poetry

Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.

Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.

(2) Modern novels

Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).

Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.

Epilogue

American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.

Bibliography:

1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975

2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982

3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988

4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998

5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997

肢体语言 （Body Language ）又称身体语言，是指经由身体的各种动作，从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之，肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之，肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时，我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文：The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!

The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools（肢体语言在中学的使用）全文如下：

Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi

Foreign Language Department

Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology

【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.

【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language

I. Introduction

As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.

Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.

The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.

II. The necessity and importance of using body language in English teaching

English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.

Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.

III. The concrete application of the body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing

1. Body language helps to improve listening

The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.

2. Body language helps to improve speaking

The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.

The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.

3. Body language helps to improve reading

The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.

When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.

In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.

4. Body language helps to improve writing.

Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.

To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.

The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.

IV. Conclusion

Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.

Bibliography:

1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999

2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999

3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.

4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990

5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997

6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998

俄语属于斯拉夫语族的东斯拉夫语支。主要在俄罗斯和前苏联的其它成员国中使用，在华沙条约的成员国里曾经被学校广泛作为第一外语教学。在苏联时期，俄语在其加盟共和国中被大大的强调。虽然很多前苏联的国家现在开始强调当地语言的重要性，但是俄语仍然是这些地区最广泛使用的语言，并且也是这些国家进行交流时使用的语言。挪威俄语是俄语和挪威语的混合语。是俄罗斯的唯一官方语言，哈萨克斯坦 、 白俄罗斯 、 吉尔吉斯斯坦官方语言之一。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的语言教育论文范文：俄语语言教学与文化导入。内容仅供参考，欢迎阅读!

俄语语言教学与文化导入全文如下：

摘 要：语言是文化的一部分，并对文化起着重要作用。有些社会学家认为，语言是文化的基石——没有语言，就没有文化;从另一个方面看，语言又受文化的影响，反映文化。可以说，语言反映一个民族的特征，它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景，而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。语言与文化互相影响，互相作用;理解语言必须了解文化，理解文化必须了解语言。

在俄语教学中常常会遇到如下情况：有些既没有生僻词、也没有复杂语法结构的听力或阅读理解材料，学生常听不懂或是不理解，此原因大多是遇到了原文中所涉及的文化背景知识，而学习者却不了解背景知识。其实，看似较为容易的听力或阅读理解材料，却是一项复杂的语言与思维相互作用的过程。理解准确与否在很大程度上取决于语言知识及文化背景知识的掌握程度。例如，据说，清朝“洋务运动一的代表人物李鸿章到美国访问时，主人称赞其妻很漂亮，李鸿章客气地回答：“哪里，哪里”。美国人不知道这是中国人谦虚的表现，以为要其指出具体哪里漂亮，于是尴尬地说：“全身”。 这就是文化差异。中国是一个礼仪之邦，谦虚在中国认为是一种美德，是有教养的表现。是中国文化特色的礼貌表现，中国人听到赞美之词时，往往是先否定对方的赞扬，然后再客气一番，以示自谦。

这个事例非常形象直观地反映出了语言和文化的相辅相成。由此可见：“语言的存在不能脱离文化，不能脱离社会继承决定了我们生活的实质”(著名语言学家萨丕尔)，因此俄语教学必须重视文化差异并循序渐进导入教学中。我们不仅要教授学生掌握扎实的语言基本知识和技能，还要使学生了解俄罗斯国家的历史和文化，从而使学习者能够正确地理解和使用语言，达到俄语教学的目的。前苏联学者维列夏金(E.M.ВЕРЩАгин)和科斯托马罗夫(В.Г.КОСТОМАОВ)创建的俄语语言国情学(Лингвострановедение)二十年多年来为我国的俄语教学增添了新的活力和内容，它打破了传统的单一式的纯语言教学模式，融语言与文化为一体，把语言国情知识即文化背景知识列入外语教学的重要环节，为继语音、词汇、语法、修辞后的第五方面，这五方面相互作用，相互关连，共同构建一个完整的教学体系。

1 俄语教学中文化导入的重要性

众所周知，语言承载着丰富的文化内涵。语言进入交际中，就存在对文化内涵的理解和表达的问题。理解和表达是跨文化交际关键问题。语言和文化密切相关，同样，俄语教学也不能脱离俄罗斯国家的文化和历史背道而驰。俄语教学中，把语言与文化相融合，这已经成为俄语教学工作者所普遍认同的一个原则：俄语教学不是只解决词形变化问题，不能只学会按词类释义掌握词汇，不是停留在掌握俄语句子结构上，它需要扩展出语言本身的范围，深入到语言以外的现实生活中去，这样学生才完全地掌握语言、运用语言到实践中，达到交际目的，这个原则是建立在七十年代诞生于前苏联的一门新兴学科一语言国情学的基础之上的，前苏联学者Е.М.Bерещагин和В.Г.КОСТОМАРОВ在《语言与文化》 即《Язык и культура》书中指出：“语言国情学是对外俄语教学的一个方面，它通过语言的载蓄功能(кумулятивная функЦия)，向教学对象介绍苏联当代生活典型形象以保障教学的实际性。完成语言教学任务，提高学生文化素养，进行思想教育，其教学方法具有语言教学的基本功能，即在传授语言的过程中用俄语讲解国情。同时语言又反映着使用该语言的民族的文化。由此可见，语言又是文化的载体，这就是语言的载蓄功能。俄语语言教学的目的是培养学生的俄语交际应用能力，而交际的过程始终伴随着文化的交流，语言背景知识是交际获取的基础。

2 俄语教学中文化导入的四点原则

2.1阶段渐进原则

任何教学活动都是循序渐进的过程，教学与文化也是如此。初期阶段的文化导入应主要介绍在日常生活交际方面俄汉文化的差异，以及在语言形式和运用中的具体表现，从而使学生掌握日常生活中俄语语言的交际能力。第二阶段的主要内容是介绍由于文化差异所引起的俄汉词语、成语含义及运用方面的差异，使学生熟悉俄汉语义的差别并深入理解俄语表达法所涉及的文化内涵，从而助力学生恰当地运用这些词汇进行语言交际。

2.2 实用实践原则

实用实践原则所导人的文化内容与学生所学的语言内容紧密相连，同时考虑到学生今后所从事的职业性质等因素。一方面使学生认知语言与文化的关系不抽象空洞;另一方面文化教学紧密结合语言交际实践，可以激发学生学习语言和文化的兴趣，产生良好的效果。

2.3 适合时代原则

所谓适合时代，主要指在教学内容、方法上的适度。教学内容的适度除了以上提到的实用性和阶段性原则外，还应考虑到该文化目的代表性问题，属于主流时代文化性，有广泛代表性的内容。因为文化的内容非常丰富，也极其复杂。同时还应处理好文化内容的历时性和共时性之间的关系，重点应放在共时文化上，适当引入一些历时的内容，以利于学生了解某些文化习俗和传统的来龙去脉。教学方法上的适度，就是要正确协调好教师讲解和学生自学的关系。应鼓励学生进行大量的课外阅读和实践，与时俱进，增加文化知识积累。教师应成为课外文化学习的组织者和指导者。

2.4 系统规划原则

文化导入最大的问题就是缺乏系统性。教师在教授语言过程中，遇到一些文化现象便顺便一提，对文化教学中的内容和方法也无具体统一要求。因此在制定新的《大学俄语教学课程要求》时，是否应针对俄语教学的文化导入问题增加部分内容，明确文化导入的原则、内容、方法、途径以及要求达到的水平等。这样教师在俄语教学中的文化导入便有纲可依，从而避免文化导入过程中盲目和混乱现象。

3 俄语教学中文化导入的五种方法

3.1 注解法

这是目前所使用的大多数俄语教材所采用的方法。即将教学材料中容易引起学生理解上困难的词语或表达法在课后用专门篇幅加以注释。该方法的特点是灵活、简便、适用于各种语言材料各个阶段对某一语言现象的突出讲解，缺点是无系统性。比如在《新编大学俄语基础教程》第一册第十一课的课文注释(Пояснения к тексту)中，分别介绍了чёРнАя peчкa(黑溪)Летний сад(夏园)、крейсер《ABpopa》(“阿芙乐尔”号巡洋舰)和6eлые ночи(白夜)等文化内容，如果学习该课文之前对有关内容做完整的介绍，对教师讲解课文及学生理解课文都是大有帮助的。

3.2 融合法

融合法指的是将文化内容与语言材料结合在一起的教学方法。如果语言材料本身就是介绍前苏联或独联体文化习俗、词语典故、文学名著、历史事件等，那么教师在教学过程中的进一步讲解就很容易引起学生的兴趣，文化知识和语言的学习可以有潜移默化的效果。

3.3 实践法

实践法是指学生通过具体的语言实践，如听、说、读等学习和了解俄语国家的文化知识，包括看电影和教学录像以及阅读文学作品等：俄苏文学是世界文学史上一颗璀灿的明珠，对俄苏文学作品的阅读也是一种学习外国文化知识的重要方法，一个民族的文学作品是该民族文化的精华部分，是传统文化的积累。当然阅读原文的文学名著难度很大，研究者建议学生可以翻阅中文译文来补充这一部分的内容。

3.4 比较法

比较法是跨文化语言交际教学中的一个极为重要的手段。俄汉两个民族文化上异同，体现了文化共性，也存在文化个性。因此，在教学过程中，语言国情知识的传授必须立足于俄汉两个民族语言文化异同的对比。通过俄汉两种文化的对比，使学生的知识结构不只是停留在表面的认知层次上，而是向纵向方向发展。作为记录人类历史，表达人类生活的思想工具，每一种语言都有其深远的文化背景和文化内涵。比如，俄国人在交往过程中喜欢使用赞语(комплимент).说恭维话，如夸奖妇女的发型、衣着打扮等，对这些夸奖俄罗斯妇女通常会说： “Спасибо!” (谢谢!)，而中国妇女就会非常客气地说“不漂亮”。再比如中国人打招呼时常说“您去哪儿?”(Куда вы идёте?”)而俄罗斯人会认为你干涉人家私事，很不礼貌。中国素有“礼仪之邦”之称，一贯提倡“笑迎天下客”、“微笑服务”，而俄罗斯人不习惯对陌生人展露笑容，他们不苟言笑并非不友好，而是受其传统的交际文化及历史的影响，认为微笑会分散注意力，工作时应该思想集中、态度严肃。在与亲朋好友交往时则绽放笑容。

3.5 历史引入法

通过介绍历史人物和历史事件可以拓宽学生的知识面，更好地理解句子。阅读俄语文章要有一定和语言知识，但阅读理解能力的高低不完全是语言水平的问题，文化背景知识必不可少。比如在纪念普希金(A.C.Пушкин)诞辰二百周年的日子里，向学生介绍俄国文学史上第一位举世瞩目的伟大作家的生平及其流芳百世的不朽名著《叶甫盖尼?奥涅金>(《Евгений Онегин》)，并介绍对作家少年时代有影响的圣彼得堡附近的普希金城(Пушкино)即沙俄时期的皇村 (Царское село);并使学生了解作家辉煌灿烂而短暂的一生，学生们不但产生了浓厚的学习文化背景知识的热情，而且对俄语语言知识的学习也感兴趣，充分调动学生学习俄语的积极性。

4 结语

综上所述，可以看到，要想提高学生综合运用语言的能力，除了语言能力、语言因素外，还有必要注意非语言因素。在俄语教学过程中，教师的任务除了是“语音专家和语言寄存器”之外，还应该是俄罗斯国家文化的“传播者”，充分利用这种文化因素，向学生讲解语言，并努力发掘其文化内涵。如果把语言和文化分离，“语言就只是一个空壳”。语音、语法、词汇这些纯语言形式提供的只是语言理解和语言使用的客体信息，剔除语言内的文化内容，离开了语言的文化背景，语言内在的信息难以生存，即使语言规范，也未必有传递信息的作用。因此说，语言学习很重要的一个方面是文化知识学习。俄语教学融入文化导入会使学习者事半功倍。