为您找到与语言文化与交际论文相关的共200个结果:
文化会影响人们对外界事物的看法和认识,不同的国家存在不同的文化,因此在思维模式方面必然存在差异,这一点在东西文化之间表现得尤为明显。造成中西文化冲突现象的原因多种多样,究其根本,就是因为中西双方有着不同的文化、不同的历史背景,必然带来人们思想、行为等多方面的差异,甚至是冲突,
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:跨文化交际与中西文化冲突相关论文。仅供大家参考!
跨文化交际与中西文化冲突全文如下:
【摘要】在中西跨文化交际中,文化冲突的事例屡见不鲜,严重影响了交往的顺利进行,因此我们很有必要找出其深层次的原因,并采取一定的措施来培养跨文化交际的能力,避免文化冲突。
【关键词】跨文化交际、文化差异、文化冲突
随着中国对外开放程度的逐渐深入,西方社会的人和事物越来越多地走进了我们的视野,在这种情况下,跨国域、跨民族、跨文化的经济和社会交往将会与日俱增,这就为我们提供了许多与西方人接触和交往的机会,这对于加深我们的西方社会的理解是一件好事,但这并不是一件简单的事情,因为我们所面对的是来自陌生的文化和国家,思维方式、生活习惯和行为方式与我们迥然不同的人,在与之交往的过程中不可避免的会出现文化冲突的现象。
在中西跨文化交际中会出现的文化冲突有很多种,在这里我们不可能一一叙述,只能列出比较常见的几种。
1.1隐私方面的冲突
中国人的隐私观念比较薄弱,认为个人要归属于集体,在一起讲究团结友爱,互相关心,故而中国人往往很愿意了解别人的酸甜苦辣,对方也愿意坦诚相告。而西方人则非常注重个人隐私,讲究个人空间,不愿意向别人过多提及自己的事情,更不愿意让别人干预。因此在隐私问题上中西双方经常发生冲突,例如:中国人第一次见面往往会询问对方的年龄,婚姻状况,儿女,职业,甚至收入,在中国人的眼里这是一种礼貌,但在西方人眼里则认为这些问题侵犯了他们的隐私。
1.2时间观方面的冲突
西方人的时间观和金钱观是联系在一起的,时间就是金钱的观念根深蒂固,所以它们非常珍惜时间,在生活中往往对时间都做了精心的安排和计划,并养成了按时赴约的好习惯。在西方,要拜访某人,必须事先通知或约定,并说明拜访的目的、时间和地点,经商定后方可进行。而中国人则属于多向时间习惯的国家,在时间的使用上具有很大的随意性,一般不会像西方人那样严格的按照计划进行,西方人对此往往感到不适应。
1.3客套语方面的冲突
中国人注重谦虚,在与人交际时,讲求“卑己尊人”,把这看作一种美德,这是一种富有中国文化特色的礼貌现象。在别人赞扬我们时,我们往往会自贬一番,以表谦虚有礼。西方国家却没有这样的文化习惯,当他们受到赞扬时,总会很高兴地说一声“Thank you”表示接受。由于中西文化差异,我们认为西方人过于自信,毫不谦虚;而当西方人听到中国人这样否定别人对自己的赞扬或者听到他们自己否定自己的成就,甚至把自己贬得一文不值时,会感到非常惊讶,认为中国人不诚实。
1.4餐饮习俗方面的冲突
中华民族素有热情好客的优良传统。在交际场合和酒席上,热情的中国人常常互相敬烟敬酒。中国人宴客,即使美味佳肴摆满一桌,主人也总习惯讲几句“多多包涵”等客套话。主人有时会用筷子往客人的碗里夹菜,用各种办法劝客人多吃菜、多喝酒。而在西方国家,人们讲求尊重个人权益和个人隐私,所以他们不会做强人所难的事。吃饭的时候,绝不会硬往你碗里夹菜,自己想吃什么就吃什么,他们也不会用各种办法劝客人喝酒,不会非要你喝醉了为止。
造成中西文化冲突现象的原因多种多样,究其根本,就是因为中西双方有着不同的文化、不同的历史背景,必然带来人们思想、行为等多方面的差异,甚至是冲突,下面我们就来具体看一下有哪些主要的原因。
2.1思维模式存在差异
文化会影响人们对外界事物的看法和认识,不同的国家存在不同的文化,因此在思维模式方面必然存在差异,这一点在东西文化之间表现得尤为明显。西方文化的思维模式注重逻辑和分析,而东方文化的思维模式则表现出直觉整体性,这一点也是中国传统文化思维的特征。由于这种传统文化的影响,中国人往往特别重视直觉,注重认识过程中的经验和感觉,在交往中也往往以这种经验和感觉去“以己度人”。与西方人的思维模式相比,中国人的这种思维模式具有明显的笼统性和模糊性,久而久之,会形成一种思维定势,可以解释为识别和简化对外界事物的分类感知过程。从本质上说,思维定势往往忽视个体事物的差别,夸大与另外某一社会群体相关的认知态度,常常带有感情色彩,并伴有固定的信条。在所有的定势中,有些定势是正确的,而有些则是错误的,会直接影响跨文化交际,造成交际失误。
2.2行为规范各不相同
行为规范的具体含义就是指被社会所共同接受的道德标准和行为准则,简单的说,就是告诉人们该做什么和不该做什么的一种规范。不同文化背景的人们在交际时,经常出现的一个现象就是套用自身所在社会的行为规范来判定对方行为的合理性,由于双方的行为规范存在差异,常常会产生误解、不快甚至更坏的结果。比如说中国人轻拍小孩子的头部表示一种友好,而在西方国家,这是一种极不尊重小孩子的做法,父母会对此非常愤怒。所以说在跨文化交际中是否能够正确地识别和运用行为规范是保证跨文化交际顺利进行的重要因素。要保障跨文化交际的顺利进行,就必须理解对方的行为规范,尤其是什么行为是被禁止的,最好的办法就是遵循入乡随俗的原则。
2.3价值取向不同
人们的交际能力是在社会化的过程中产生的,必然与价值观念联系在一起。每一种文化都有自己特有的价值体系,这套体系能够帮助人们区分美与丑、善良与邪恶,这就是人们的处世哲学、道德标准和行为规范。但是它不能脱离具体的文化而存在,每一种文化的判断标准是不同的,这种文化认为是好的,另一种文化可能认为不好,但是它们在自己的文化体系内都有其存在的合理性,绝不可以理解为一种价值标准先进,而另一种价值标准落后。以中西文化为例,在中国文化中,人们推崇谦虚知礼,追求随遇而安,不喜欢争强好胜,同时社会风气也往往封杀过于突出的个人,正所谓“行高于众,人必非之”。在中国文化中,集体取向占据主导地位,追求个人发展被视为是一种严重的个人主义,必然会受到谴责。而西方文化则非常崇尚个人主义,“随遇而安”被看作是缺乏进取精神的表现,是懒惰、无能的同义语,为社会和个人所不取。人本位的思想根植于他们心中,人们崇尚独立思考,独立判断,依靠自己的能力去实现个人利益,并且认为个人利益至高无上。
2.4语用迁移造成影响
人们对遇到的现象、事物和行为的评价和解释是建立在本身文化的基础之上的,在跨文化交际中也同样如此,因此往往会造成交际的障碍,其根源就在于忽略了语用的迁移。文化不同语言的使用规则就会不同,一种文化的标准规范只能在自身中按其特定条件加以解释,而不能以此为规范来描述另一种文化,否则必然会导致跨文化交际的失败,其深层原因就在于人们缺乏对社会语言差异的敏感性,会无意识地进行语用迁移,而这种后果有时会很严重,甚至会招致巨大经济损失。我国的羊绒制品在国际上评价颇好,北方某厂曾出口一种“双羊”牌高档羊绒被,商标被译成英文Goats,结果销路特别不好,原因就在于在英语中goat这个词除了本意“山羊”外,还有“色鬼”之意。有了这样的英文商标,无论这种羊绒被的质量有多好,用起来多舒服,那些妙龄女子、家庭主妇也不会愿意把它铺上床的。
从以上的分析可以看出,在我们与西方的交往过程中,确实存在着很多文化方面的冲突,直接影响到了跨文化交往的效果,为了改变这一状况,我们极有必要在实际教学中培养学生的跨文化交际能力,具体措施如下:
3.1授课教师要转变观念
在我国目前的教学体系中,外语教学多半只在课堂上进行,教师起着绝对的主导作用。如果教师只把重点放在语法和词汇教学上,学生就不可能学会语言的实际运用,也无法获得跨文化交际的能力。因此,授课的教师必须要转变自己的观念,切实认识到文化冲突的危害性和培养学生跨文化交际能力的重要性。同时,教师还要加强学习,提高自身的综合文化素质,只有这样,才能全面把握英语文化知识教育的量与度,以及教学的具体步骤和方法,以达到预期的教学目的。
3.2改进现有的教学方法
一直以来,大学的英语教学侧重点都放在了语言知识的传授上,而忽略了跨文化交际能力的培养。为了改变这种情况,我们必须改进教学方法,在质和量两个方面对课堂教学中的文化教学加以控制,并充分利用现代化的教学手段(电影、投影仪、互联网等)来调动学生的学习积极性。此外还可以举办一些专题讲座,以满足学生的求知欲望,培养出具有较高跨文化交际能力的人才。但是值得注意的是,在改进教学方法时,一定要使新的内容与学生所学的语言知识紧密联系,并与语言交际实践紧密结合。
3.3重视非语言交际能力的培养
非语言交际也是一种重要的交际方式,指的是在特定的情景或语境中使用非语言行为交流和理解信息的过程,它们不是真正的语言单位,但在生活和交际中有时候却能表达出比语言更强烈的含义,一些特定的非语言行为往往代表着特定的含义,在跨文化交际中必须加以重视。中西文化背景下的非语言文化内涵差异非常大。例如,中国人信奉“沉默是金”,认为沉默里含有丰富的信息,甚至“此时无声胜有声”,而英语国家的人对此颇感不舒服。西方人交谈时,听者一般都会长时间注视对方的眼神,以示听者的认真和对说话者的尊重,但是在中国人看来,这是一种不礼貌的行为,因为中国人不习惯于对方长时间地盯着自己看。
3.4引导学生广泛接触西方文化材料
在大学里,英语教学的课时非常有限,但学生在课余有充分的可支配时间,因此不能仅仅依靠教师在课堂上的教学来培养跨文化交际能力,教师要引导学生利用课外时间广泛阅读西方英语文学作品、报刊杂志和时事评论等材料,从中吸取文化知识,增加文化素养,拓宽西方文化视野,提高跨文化交际能力。另外,有外教的学校还应充分发挥外教在西方文化传播中的作用,他们是活的文化教材,让学生直接与外教交流,听外教做报告或讲课,其言传身教会对学生起到一种潜移默化的作用。
[1]许果、梅林,文化差异与跨文化交际能力的培养。《重庆大学学报》(社科版),2002年第8卷第6期,121-123
[2]顾江禾,东西方文化对比小议。《太原重型机械学院学报》,2001年第22卷第4期,279-282
[3]华厚坤,试论跨文化语境下的大学英语教学。《黑龙江高教研究》,2003年第6期,153-154
[4]吴锋针,中西习俗文化“冲突”。《绥化师专学报》,2003年第1期,90-92
[5]程晓莉,英语跨文化交际教学的思考。《安徽农业大学学报》(社会科学版),2003年第5期,105-107
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Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
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it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
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新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
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文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
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令西方人不能理解的是,中国烹调不仅不追求精确的规范化,反而推崇随意性。翻开中国的菜谱,常常发现原料的准备量、调料的添加量都是模糊的概念。“一汤匙”、“半碗”、“少许”比比皆是,可究竟汤匙、碗有多大,“少许”是多少,谁也没有具体的标准。今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是:跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异修改论文,具体内容如下;希望能够帮助到大家!
【摘要】不同的民族和国家存在着各具特色的饮食文化,具有浓郁的民族性和多样性的特点。饮食文化的差异也是跨文化交际中 影响 交际结果的因素之一。了解中西方饮食文化的差异与不同,理解其深刻的文化内涵,探究其文化底蕴,促成了文化的进一步交流、互补与兼容。
【关键词】跨文化交际;饮食文化;文化差异
【论文正文】
跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异
随着国际交往的不断深入,来自不同国家或文化背景的人们进行的交流不断增多,他们之间的这种交流被称之为跨文化交际。跨文化交际逐渐成为人们生活中不可或缺的 内容 。由于地区差异,不同的民族、国家形成了不同的文化。不同文化背景的人们的行为方式或习惯不尽相同,有其各自的 社会 规约或习惯,体现在 政治 、 经济 、 教育 、宗教、 法律 、文化 艺术 等各个方面。不同文化背景的人进行交际时,影响信息传达效果的那些语言和非语言因素构成了跨文化交际中的交际文化。外语 学习 者如果对所学目的语国家的语言与非语言交际行为及其功能缺乏了解,就会出现不恰当的言行,从而产生交际障碍,就很难进行有效的跨文化交际,以致造成交际失误。
饮食文化也是跨文化交际中非语言文化重要组成部分之一。了解中西方饮食文化中的差异和其渊源,对于外语学习者来讲,不仅能增加对所学语言文化的理解,更能提高跨文化交际的成功率,避免因为不恰当的方式或行为造成误解和交际障碍。这里从关注重点、烹调准则和文化特征等三个方面阐述中西方饮食文化的差异,以增进了解,促进交流。
一、“营养”和“美味”的关注重点不同
(一)理性的西方人更多关注的是营养与生存
中西饮食文化最大的差异是关注的重点不同,即“营养”和“美味”两者孰轻孰重的 问题 。在西方国家,饮食大多仅仅作为一种生存的必要手段和交际方式。西方饮食是一种理性观念,不论食物的色、香、味、形如何,营养一定要得到保证。林语堂先生说,英美人仅以“吃”为对一个生物的机器注入燃料,只要他们吃了以后能保持身体的结实,足以抵御病菌的感染,其他皆在不足道中。即便口味千篇一律,甚至比起 中国 的美味佳肴来,简直单调得如同嚼蜡,但理智告诉他们:一定要吃下去,因为有营养。换句话说,西方人特别讲求和关心的是食物的营养成分是否搭配合宜,以及这些营养成分能否被充分吸收,有无其他副作用。而菜肴的色、香、味,则是次一等的要求。即使是在饮食文化与我们比较相似的法国,涉及营养问题,双方便拉开了距离。法国烹调虽然也追求美味,但同时还坚持“营养”这一大前提,一味舍营养而求美味的做法是他们不赞成的。
不可否认,西方烹调讲究营养而忽视味道,至少他们是不以味觉享受为首要目的。冰镇的开胃冷酒还要再加冰块,饮后舌表面遍布的味觉神经便大大丧失品味的灵敏度,渐至不能辨味;那带血的牛排与大白鱼、大白肉,白水煮豆子、煮土豆,虽有“味”而不入“味”;他们拒绝使用味精,认为其是既不营养又有副作用化学产品;生吃的蔬菜,不仅包括西红柿、黄瓜、生菜,甚至是洋白菜、洋葱、西兰花。因而他们的“色拉”有如一盘饲料,使我们难以下咽。虽然现在的中国人也讲究营养保健,也知道蔬菜爆炒加热后会丢失一部分维生素,生吃则避免丢失,可还是宁愿选择前者,因为习惯使然,更是因为味道确实好多了。
(二)感性的中国人追求的是美味和享受
在中国,民间有句俗话:“民以食为天,食以味为先”,味道是烹调的最高准则。虽然人们在赞誉美食时,总爱说“色香味俱佳”,那是根据我们感受色香味的感觉器官“眼、鼻、口”的上下排列顺序。但人们内心对于“色、香、味”,从来都是“味”字当先的。中国人通常重视味道,不太想到营养,这也反映在日常言谈之中,如家庭宴客,主菜端上台面时,主人常自谦地说:“菜烧得不好,不一定合您的口味,就凑合着吃吧。他绝不会说:“菜的营养价值不高,热量不够。”在中国人的眼里,“吃”远不单纯是为了饱,也不是为了营养,有时吃饱了,还要吃,这是因为受不了“美味”的诱惑而尽情进行味觉享受。但在西方的理性饮食观看来,这种超负荷的饮食不仅造成浪费,而且危害人体。尽管中国人讲究食疗、食补、食养,重视以饮食来养生滋补,但我们的烹调却以追求美味为第一要求,致使许多营养成分损失破坏,因此营养问题也许是中国饮食的最大弱点。
二、“规范”与“随意”的烹调准则不同
(一)西方烹调遵循的是规范与 科学
中西烹饪中处处显示的“规范”与“随意”也体现了其饮食文化的不同。西方人强调科学与营养,因此烹调的全过程都严格按照科学规范行事。菜谱的使用就是一个极好的证明。西方菜谱中计量都以“克” 计算 ,表面上看,菜谱似乎是科学的,西方人总是拿着菜谱去买菜,制作菜肴,但相比起来,还是一个非常机械的东西,在复杂的具体情况面前往往是无能为力的。而这种一致性导致了西餐的一个弊端——缺乏特色。当人们身处异地想品尝当地美食时,肯定是不会有人会选择肯德基或麦当劳之类食品的。因为肯德基老头的炸鸡不仅需要按照配方配料,就连油的温度,炸鸡的时间,也都要严格依规范行事,所以全世界的肯德基味道都是一样的。另外,规范化的烹调甚至要求配料的准备、调料的添加精确到克,烹调时间精确到秒。深受卡尔文教派影响的荷兰人连自己都说过“如果说法国人是为吃而活着,我们荷兰人则是为活着而吃”,这也就不难理解 “荷兰人家的厨房备有天平、液体量杯、定时器、刻度锅,调料架上排着整齐大小划一的几十种调味料瓶,就像个化学试验室。”可是当烹饪变成一个精确而艰巨的实验时,哪里还有什么乐趣可言呢?由于西方菜肴制作的规范化,使得烹调成为一种机械性的工作,毫无创造性。牛排、炸鸡、色拉,翻来覆去总是那么几个花样,因而厨师的工作就成为一种极其单调的机械性工作,他有如自动化装配线上的一名工人,甚至可由一机器人来代行其职。
(二)中国烹调推崇的是随意与特色
令西方人不能理解的是,中国烹调不仅不追求精确的规范化,反而推崇随意性。翻开中国的菜谱,常常发现原料的准备量、调料的添加量都是模糊的概念。“一汤匙”、“半碗”、“少许”比比皆是,可究竟汤匙、碗有多大,“少许”是多少,谁也没有具体的标准。而且中国烹调中,不仅讲究各大菜系要有各自的风味与特色,即使是同一菜系的同一个菜,所用的配菜与各种调料的匹配,也会依厨师的个人爱好特点有变化。有时候同一厨师做同一个菜,可能也会根据不同季节、不同场合,用餐人的不同身份、口味、要求,加以调整。甚至还会因厨师自己临场情绪的变化即兴的发挥。同样是一道“麻婆豆腐”,为四川客人烹制和为苏州客人烹制,所用的调料肯定是不同的。又比如红烧鱼,冬天的颜色宜深些,口味宜重些,夏天则色和味均应清淡些;对于江浙一带的人来说,红烧鱼的调味中可加糖,如对川湘顾客,则应多放辣。可见如果离开了随意性,变化多端的中国菜肴,就会失去其独特魅力。而在西方,一道菜在不同的地区不同的季节面对不同的食者,都是同一味道,毫无变化。即使是高档的宴席,也不过是餐具更考究,布置更华贵而已,菜仍旧一个样。
同时对食品加工的随意性,无限扩大了 中国 菜谱。原料的多样,刀工的多样,调料的多样,烹调 方法 的多样,交叉组合后使得一种原料便可做成数种以至十数种、数十种菜肴。新疆的“全羊席”,广东的“全鱼席”,北京的“全鸭席”就是最好的证明。最常用的原料鸡,到了粤菜大厨师手中,便做出数十道以至上百道菜式。许多西方人视为弃物的东西,在中国都是极好的原料,外国厨师无法处理的东西,一到中国厨师手里,就可以化腐朽为神奇,比如著名菜肴炒“杂烩”,更是把这种随意性发挥到极致,凡是能吃者皆能入菜。也就是这样的随意性创造出了中国烹饪中琳琅满目的菜式。
三、“分别”与“和合”的文化特征不同
(一)崇尚自由的西方人重分别与个性
台湾 国学大师钱穆先生在《 现代 中国学术论衡》一书的序言中说:“文化异,斯学术亦异。中国重和合,西方重分别。”中西文化的差异也 影响 了各自的饮食文化。在中西饮食文化之中也明显体现出这种“和合”与“分别”的文化特征。西菜中除少数汤菜,如俄式红菜汤(罗宋汤),是把多种荤素原料集中在一锅里熬制而成之外,正菜中各种原料互不相干,鱼就是鱼,鸡就是鸡,牛排就是牛排,纵然有搭配,那也是在盘中进行的。如,“法式羊排”,一边靠着羊排放土豆泥,另一边配煮青豆,加两片番茄、三片生菜即可。色彩上对比鲜明,但在滋味上各种原料互不调和,各是各的味,泾渭分明。所谓“土豆烧牛肉”,也不过是烧好的牛肉加煮熟的土豆,绝非把土豆牛肉一锅煮。即使是调味的作料,如番茄酱、芥末糊、柠檬汁、辣酱油,也都是现吃现加。即使有所搭配,也是像“1+1=2”一样简单明了。以上种种都体现了“西方重分别”的 社会 文化。
这种重分别的社会文化同样体现在用餐方式上。自由的西方人奉行的是分餐制。首先是各点各的菜,想吃什么点什么,这表现了西方人对个性、对自我的尊重。及至上菜后,人各一盘各吃各的,各自随意添加调料,一道菜吃完后再吃第二道菜,前后两道菜绝不混吃。西方流行的自助餐形式更是各吃各的,互不相扰,缺少中国人聊欢共乐的情调。
(二)向往和谐的中国人重和合与整体
中国人一向以“和”与“合”为最美妙的境界, 音乐 上讲究“和乐”、“唱和”,医学上主张“身和”、“气和”,希望国家 政治 实现“政通人和”。而我们称夫妇成婚为“合卺”,称美好的婚姻为“天作之合”;当我们表示崇敬之心时,更以双手“合十”为礼,而当一切美好的事物凑集在一起时,我们将其称誉为“珠联璧合”。而这种“和合”的思想体现在烹饪上就反映为“五味调和”。就是说,烹制食物时需要在保留原料 自然 之味的基础上进行“五味调和”,要用阴阳五行的基本 规律 指导这一调和,调和既要合乎时序,又要注意时令,才能达到“美味可口”的烹调目标。所以中国菜几乎每个菜都要用两种以上的原料和多种调料来调和烹制。即便是家常菜,一般也是荤素搭配来调和烹制的,如韭黄炒肉丝、菠萝咕噜肉、番茄炒蛋、排骨冬瓜汤……而如果换做西厨烹制,端上桌的恐怕是奶汁肉丝外加白水煮韭黄,或炸猪排佐以菠萝色拉,如此的中菜西做,让人哭笑不得。
中国人把做菜称之为“烹调”,这意味着我们将烹与调合为一体,要调和出一种美好的滋味。这一讲究的就是分寸,就是整体的配合。它包含了中国 哲学 丰富的辩证法思想,一切以菜的味的美好、谐调为度,度以内的千变万化就决定了中国菜的丰富和富于变化,中国饮食之所以有其独特的魅力,关键就在于它的味。而美味的产生,在于调和,要使食物的本味,加热以后的熟味,加上配料和辅料的味以及调料的调和之味,交织融合协调在一起,使之互相补充,互助渗透,水乳交融,你中有我,我中有你。因此中国人烹调不是“1+1=2”那么简单,而是应该等于“3”甚至更多。
在中国,任何一个宴席,不论什么目的都只会有一种形式就是聚餐,大家团团围坐合吃一桌菜,冷拼热炒沙锅火锅摆满桌面,客人东吃一筷西吃一勺,几道菜同时下肚。筵席要用圆桌,这就从形式上造成了一种团结、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心,供一桌人欣赏、品尝。人们相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝酒劝菜,体现了相互尊重、礼让的美德,同时也借此交流感情。虽然从卫生的角度看,这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处,但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态。这些都体现了“分别”与“和合”的中西文化的根本差异。
综上,中西饮食在诸多方面存在着各式各样的差异,当然,这些差异都具有相对性,几千年来的东西方文化的交流也促成中西方的饮食文化的不断融合。全球化态势下的跨文化交际使得多样的饮食文化不断的互补与兼容。今天,享受东西方各具特色的饮食已成为当代人日常生活中司空见惯的事情。我们在大街上随处可见法式大餐、麦当劳、肯德基等西方的舶来饮食,而中国菜馆也开遍了全世界。饮食文化的交流正存在于我们的日常生活中,并不断充当全球 经济 文化整合过程中,不同文化之间的“传递带”。它已经成为了一种日益增强的文化影响力,正发挥着比其他任何全球化单一力量大得多的作用,也在悄悄地改变着全世界。饮食文化的交流,需要不同文化之间的相互理解和欣赏,属于跨文化交际范畴,是一种非语言行为。 研究 跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异将使人们增进相互间的了解,享受不同的饮食带来的不同感受,增进文化间的交流、互补与融合。
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身势语Body Language是一个民族文化的组成部分,在当今跨文化交际越来越频繁的世界里,了解其他国家的无声语言有助于促进交流,避免误解和尴尬。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:浅谈非语言交际中的身势语相关论文。仅供大家参考!
浅谈非语言交际中的身势语全文如下:
“身势语”同语言一样,都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中,身势语的意义并不完全相同。各民族有不同的非语言交际方式.例如:不同的民族在谈话时,对双方保持多大距离才合适有不同的看法;谈话双方身体接触的次数多少因文化不同而各异;在目光接触这一方面也有许多规定:看不看对方,什么时候看,看多久,什么人可以看,什么人不可以看;在某些场合下,在中国和讲英语的国家无论微笑还是大笑,通常表示友好﹑赞同﹑满意﹑高兴﹑愉快,但是在某些场合,中国人的笑会引起西方人的反感;打手势时动作稍有不同,就会与原来的意图有所区别,对某种手势理解错了,也会引起意外的反应等等。因此,要用外语进行有效的交际,在说某种语言时就得了解说话人的手势,动作,举止等所表示的意思。而有些权威人士认为两者相互依存。在大多数情况下这是对的。在某些情况下,人体动作与所说的话不一致,口头说的与身势语表达的意思不一样。这时要借助其他信息或从整个情况中猜测说话人的意思,从某种意义上说,一切身势语都要放在一定的情景下去理解;忽视了整个情景就会发生误解。而通过中美身势语对比研究表明,两者有相似的地方,也有差异的地方,说明了解另一种语言中身势语的重要性。可见,真正掌握两种语言的人在换用另一种语言说话时也要换用另一种身势语。这样才能达到更好的交际效果。
关键词: 非语言交际 身势语 不同文化 不同方式
“Body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture. But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures; one could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at; smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment, and, this is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries, however, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on.
So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading. A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities and diversities of body language. It shows the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better.
Key words:nonverbal communication body language different culture different ways
1. Introduction …… 1
2. The necessity and importance of learning body language on nonverbal communication …… 2
3. The concrete types and application of the body language …… 3
3.1 Types of body language …… 3
3.1.1 Distance between people conversing …… 3
3.1.2 Physical contact …… 3
3.1.3 Eye contact …… 4
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter …… 6
3.1.5 Gestures …… 6
3.2 Application of the body language …… 6
3.2.1 Greetings …… 6
3.2.2 Signs of affection …… 8
3.2.3 Physical contact in life …… 8
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language …… 9
4. Conclusion …… 12
When a Chinese converses with a Canadian or American friend of the opposite sex, would it be indecent to be looking at the other person?
If two young friends of the same sex walk with their arms around each other’s shoulders or hold hands, would this be regarded by English-speaking people as proper?
Does nodding the head mean “yes”, and shaking the head mean “no” in all cultures?
There are not questions about language, but about body language, about nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication, composed of pictures, dresses, eye contact, spatial signals, gestures and so on, is as important as verbal communication.
People communicate in many different ways. One of the most important ways, of course, is through language. Moreover, when language is written it can be completely isolated from the context in which it occurs; it can be treated as if it were an independent and self-contained process.
Like all animals, people communicate by their actions as well as by the noises they make. It is a sort of biological anomaly of man—something like the giraffe’s neck, or the pelican’s beak—that our vocal noises have so for outgrown in importance and frequency all our other methods of signaling to one another. Language is obviously essential for human beings, but it is not the whole story of human communication. Not by a long shot.
The study of nonverbal communication should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situation body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what nonverbal communication communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a case, all nonverbal communication should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
Although we may not realize it, when we converse with others we communicate by much more than words. By our expressions, gestures and other body movements we send messages to these around us a smile and an outstretched hand show welcome. A form is a sign of displeasure. Nodding one’s head means agreement—“Yes”. Waving an outstretched hand with open palm is the gesture for “goodbye”. Leaning back in one’s seat and yawning at a talk or lecture shows lack of interest, boredom. These gestures have come to be accepted in general as having the meanings mentioned, at last to Chinese and Americans. There are parts of the way in which we communicate. This “body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture.
But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. The answers to the questions at the beginning of this chapter are all “no”. Even nodding the head may have a different meaning. To Nepalese, Sri Lankans, some Indians and some Eskimos it means not “yes”, but “no”. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research—Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn t have grown into a normal person". It s also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students characters.
3.1 Types of body language
3.1.1 Distance between people conversing
Watch an Arab and an Englishman in conversation. The Arab, showing friendliness in the manner of his people, will stand close to the Englishman. The latter will move back, watching to the Englishman. The Arab will then move forward to be closer; the Englishman will keep moving backward. By the end of the conversation, the two may be quite a distance from the conversation; the two may be quite a distance from the place where they were originally standing!
Here, distance between the two is the key factor. Different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing. According to studies, it seems there are four main distances in American social and business relations: intimate, personal, social, and public. Intimate distance ranges from direct physical contact to a distance of about 45 centimeters; this is for people’s most private relations and activities, between man and wife, for example. Personal distance is about 45—80 centimeters and is most common when friends, acquaintances and relatives converse. Social distance may be anywhere from about 1.30 meters to 3 meters; people who work together, or people doing business, as well as most of those in conversation at social gatherings tend to keep a distance is farther than any of the above and is generally for speakers in public and for teachers in classrooms.
The important thing to keep in mind is that most English-speaking people do not like people to be too close. Being too far apart, of course, may be awkward, but being too close makes people uncomfortable, unless there is a reason, such as showing affection or encouraging intimacy. But that is another matter.
3.1.2 Physical contact
The appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures. Figures from a study offer interesting insight into this matter. Pairs of individuals sitting and chatting in college shops in different places were observed for at last one hour each. The number of times that either one touched the other in that one hour was recorded, as follows: London, 0; Gainesville, Florida, 2; Pairs, 10; San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180. These figures speak for themselves. (Robinett, 1978)
In English-speaking countries, physical contact is generally avoided in conversation among ordinary friends or acquaintances. Merely touching someone may cause an unpleasant reaction. If one touches another person accidentally, he/she usually utters an apology such as “Sorry, Oh, I’m sorry, Excuse me.”
In China, a common complaint of western mothers is that Chinese often fondle their babies and very small children. Such behavior—whether touching, patting, hugging or kissing—can be quite embarrassing and awkward for the mothers. They know that no harm is meant, and that such gestures are merely signs of friendliness or affection, therefore they cannot openly show their displeasure. On the other hand, such actions in their own culture would be considered rude, intrusive and offensive and could arouse a strong dislike and even repugnance. So the mothers often stand by and watch in awkward silence, with mixed emotions, even when the fondling is by Chinese friends or acquaintances.
Going beyond the milder forms of touching, we shall take up the matter of hugging and embracing in public. This practice is fairly common among women in many countries. And in most of the more industrialized countries, it occurs frequently between husband and wife and close members of the family when meeting after a period of absence. Hugging and embracing among men, however, is a different matter. Among Arabs, Russians, French, and in several of the east European and Mediterranean countries, a warm hug and a kiss on the cheeks are a standard way of welcome. The same is true with some Latin Americans. In East Asia and in the English-speaking countries, though, the practice is seldom seen. A simple handshake is the custom. The story is told of what happened not long ago when the Japanese prime minister at the time, Mr. Fukuda, went to the U.S. on a state visit. When he stepped out of his car in front of the white house, he was greeted by the American president whit a “bear hug”. The prime minister was flabbergasted; others of the Japanese delegation were amazed; many Americans were surprised—it was so unusual and so unexpected. If the president had bowed low in Japanese fashion, it would have been less a surprise than to be greeted in a way so uncommon in either country!
The matter of physical contact between members of the same sex in English-speaking countries is a delicate one. Once past childhood, the holding of hands, or walking with an arm around another’s shoulder is not considered proper. The implication is homosexuality, and homosexuality generally arouses strong social disapproval in these countries.
3.1.3 Eye contact
Eye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at. These passages from the book Body Language (Fast, 1971) are amusing as well as informative:
“Tow strangers seated across from each other in a railway dining car have the option of introducing themselves and facing a meal of inconsequential and perhaps boring talk, or ignoring each other and desperately trying to avoid each other’s glance. A writer, describing such a situation in an essay, wrote, ‘they re-read the menu, they fool with the cutlery, they inspect their own fingernails as if seeing them for the first time. Comes the inevitable moment when glances meet, but they meet only to shoot instantly away and out the window for an intent view of the passing scene.’ ”
He points out that with people who are unfamiliar:
“We must void staring at them, and yet we must also avoid ignoring them… We look at them long enough to make it quite clear that we see them, and then we immediately look away.
There are different formulas for the exchange of glances depending on where the meeting takes place. If you pass someone in the street you may eye the oncoming person till you are about eight feet apart, then you must look away as you pass. Before the eight-foot distance is reached, each will signal in which direction he will pass. This is done with a brief look in that direction. Each will veer slightly, and the passing is done smoothly.”
In conversations with people who know each other, however, American custom demands that there should be eye contact. This applies to both the speaker and the listener. For either one not to look at the other person could imply a number of things, among which are fear, contempt, uneasiness, guilt, indifference, even in public speaking there should be plenty of eye contact. For a speaker to “burry his nose in his manuscript”, to read a speech instead of looking at and talking to hid audience, as some Chinese speakers are in the habit of doing, would be regarded as inconsiderate and disrespectful.
In conversation, a person shows that he is listening by looking at the other person’s eyes or face. If the other person is speaking at some length, the listener will occasionally make sounds like “Hmm”, “Ummm”, or nod his head to indicate his attention. If he agrees with the speaker, he may nod or smile. If he disagrees or has some reservations, he may slant his head to one side, raise an eyebrow, have a quizzical look.
Staring at people or holding a glance too long is considered improper in English-speaking countries. Even when the look may be one of appreciation—as of beauty—it may make people uneasy and embarrassed. Many Americans traveling abroad find the stares of the local people irritating. They become extremely self-conscious and often end up quite indignant about the “rudeness” of the people there, not realizing that the practice may be quite common in the country and may be nothing more than curiosity. Many English-speaking people in china have heard to complain about this.
“The language of the eyes”—one of the most common and ancient ways of exchanging feelings between boys and girls, men and women—is especially elaborate in the United States. Much study has been made of this: how people of the opposite sex show interest or indifference, encouragement or discouragement, approval or disapproval, affection or aversion. However, there are many differences even within the United States. Men use their eyes in different ways than women; there are differences of age, class or social status and geographical region; there are differences of ethnic background.
The story is told of a teenage Puerto Rican girl in a New York high school who was taken with a number of other girls to the principal for suspected smoking. Although there was no proof of any wrongdoing and although she had a good record, the principal decided she was guilty and suspended her. “There was something sly and suspicious about her,” he said in his report. “She just wouldn’t meet my eye. She wouldn’t look at me.”
When she was questioned by the principal it was true that she kept staring at the floor and refused to meet his eye. And in English there is a saying “Don’t trust anyone who won’t look at you in the eye.”
It so happened that one of the teachers had a Latin American background and knew about Puerto Rican culture. After talking with the girl’s parents, he went to the principal and explained that according to Puerto Rican culture, a good girl “does not meet the eyes of an adult.” Such behavior, he explained, “is a sign of respect and obedience.”
Fortunately, the principal accepted the explanation, admitted his mistake and the matter was settled properly. This difference in interpreting a simple eye gesture was a lesson in cultural diversity that he would not easily forget.
Rules about eye-language are numerous and complex. What has been mentioned gives a good idea of this; we shall not go further into detail.
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter
Smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. This is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries. However, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners. To illustrate, here is an excerpt from a letter by an American to a Chinese friend on nonverbal gestures that often cause cross-cultural misunderstanding:
“…One is the different meaning of laughter in China and American. When an American is parking his bicycle, for example, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. I have seen the same thing happen in the dining room, when a foreigner drops a plate quite by accident and feels badly and Chinese onlookers laugh, compounding his discomfort and causing anger and bad feeling.”
Such laughter, of course, is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he be a foreigner or a Chinese. It can convey a number of feelings: don’t take it so seriously; laugh it off, it’s nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc. However, for people unaware of this attitude, the reaction to such laughter is usually quite unpleasant and often generates ill feeling towards those laughing.
3.1.5 Gestures
Gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended. A wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions.
A well-known case is a gesture made by Winston Churchill, the doughty prime minister who led Britain through the Second World War. As he appeared before a large crowd, he was greeted with cheers and applause. The occasion was a momentous one and Churchill flashed the “V for victory” sign—with the forefinger and middle finger raised to form a “V”. Whether by mistake or ignorance, instead of facing the palm of his hand to the front, he made the “V” with the back of his hand towards the audience. Some in the crowd applauded; some gasped; some broke out in laughter. The prime minister’s gesture, as given, meant quite something else. Instead of “V for victory”, it meant something dirty; it was an obscene gesture!
3.2 Application of the body language
3.2.1 Greetings
Hoa has just arrived from Vietnam. Her cousin Phuong and some of his American friends are waiting at the airport to greet her. Hoa and Phuong are both excited about this meeting because they have been separated for seven years. As soon as Hoa enters the passenger terminal, Phuong introduces her to his friends Tom, Don, and Charles. Tom steps forward and hugs and kisses Hoa. She pushes him away and bursts into tears.
Among Chinese from Vietnam, if a boy hugs and kisses a girl in public, he insults her. Chinese culture in Vietnam is very strict about this, especially in the rural areas where Hoa grew up. She described her village: “After children are ten years old, boys and girls cannot play together. A boy and girl cannot date without their parents’ approval. A man and woman cannot hug or kiss if they’re not married.”
In Hoa’s village if anyone violated these rules, the villagers punished the girl by forcing her to kneel on the ground so they could spit at her and throw rocks at her. No wonder that Puong’s American friends frightened Hoa. She did not know what punishment for public hugging and kissing might be meted out to her in this country. She confused Tom, who by American standards was dong the right thing.
Eventually Hoa learned to be comfortable when greeted with hugs and kisses, accepting them as merely perfunctory acts.
Analogous to this situation is another in which Duane, a Chinese American employee, invited his non-Chinese boss, Mr. Keck, to a large family celebration. When Mr. Keck arrived, he shook hands with Duane and, when introduced to Duane’s grandmother, leaned over and kissed her on the cheek. This shocked the older woman, yet Mr. Keck was totally unaware that he had committed a social blunder. What he considered as a respectful act, grandmother considered disrespectful. Instead, Mr. Keck should have nodded to the older woman and offered her a verbal greeting.
◆ When establishing relations with Asians, avoid body contact. The safest form is to nod and give a verbal salutation. Follow their lead as the relationship changes.
Like customs everywhere, increased cross-cultural interaction brings about changes in habits; many Asian businesspeople have accommodated to the American handshaking tradition. On the other hand, in a situation where it seems as if bowing would still be the only polite move to make—especially to the Japanese—following these guidelines should make it easier.
◆ When bowing to people from Japan, hands should slide down toward the knees or remain at the side.
◆ Back and neck should be held in a rigid position, while eyes look downward.
◆ The person in the inferior position always bows longer and lower.
Those from India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh use the namaste for both greeting and farewells and as a sign of respect. They do this by holding their hands chest-high in a prayerlike position, then slightly nod the head; but they do not bow. American students of yoga who are taught by Asian teachers become familiar with this gesture that heralds the beginning of each session. Thais have a similar greeting, but they call it a wai.
While body contact is generally taboo in most Asian countries, elsewhere, body contact is expected; shying away from contact gives off negative signals.
◆ When greeting, people from Indian, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Thailand hold their hands together in front of their chins in a prayerlike position and nod their heads.
◆ When greeting, most Latinos expect body contact. Hugging and kissing on the check are acceptable for both the same sex and the opposite sex. The abrazo is commonplace—friends embrace and simultaneously pat each other on the back.
◆ When greeting, most middle easterners, especially Muslims, avoid body contact with the opposite sex, but men may embrace and kiss one anther. Women may do the same. When shaking hands, men should avoid pulling their hands away too quickly.
◆ When greeting most Americans, expect soma body contract. Women kiss once on each cheek and hug; men shake hands. Men may also hug and kiss women on the cheek if they are close friends.
◆ When greeting orthodox Jews, avoid body contact with the opposite sex.
3.2.2 Signs of affection
Sheree Bykofsky, an American writer, is thrilled when a cruise ship line purchases copies of her hew romantic travel guide, the best place to kiss in and around New York City. The cruise line plans to give the books as dinner favors during their special valentine’s cruise.
They invite Sheree on board to greet the passengers and autograph their copies. The Americans and Europeans delight in meeting the author and having her sign their books. However, when Sheree visits the tables of the Japanese passengers, most of them refuse to acknowledge her.
Japanese people do not approve of public body contact and, thus, have developed a complex system of bowing to express relationships. Touching a member of the opposite sex is particularly repugnant to their sensitivities; consequently, kissing in public is considered a disgraceful act.
The Japanese snubbed Sheree because the title of her book suggested behavior that did not conform to their standards of respect. They would not acknowledge her because, in their eyes, she promoted vulgarity.
Asians from countries other than Japan are equally disapproving when they see American men and women or two men to walk in public holding hands. However, when they practice this sign of friendship in the states, they are frequently mistaken for homosexuals. This shocks them.
Same-sex hand holding or walking arm-in-arm also occurs among Latinos, French, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, and middle easterners.
◆ Most Japanese people strongly disapprove of public expression of affection by males and females through kissing or any other form of body contact.
◆ Same-sex hand holding between Asians, middle-easterners, Latinos, or those from Mediterranean countries is a sign of friendship. Walking with arms on each other’s shoulders or with hands or arms linked also equates with camaraderie.
3.2.3 Physical contact
When Dorothy receives a wedding invitation to attend her Japanese neighbor’s wedding, she is thrilled. She has always admired the Yamashita family. She is very fond of lance, the about-to-be-married son, and feels extremely close to Grace, his mother. Dorothy feels honored to be included in the family festivities.
After the beautiful church ceremony, Dorothy stands in line to greet the bridal party. However, when Dorothy, a very affectionate person, steps forward to embrace the mother of the groom, Grace steps backward.
Dorothy feels rejected.
Even at such a joyous occasion as a wedding, Japanese customs about physical contact in public are not relaxed, even when taking place between the same sex. Truly, more formality is demonstrated in such situations. Consider the extreme reserve displayed at the 1993 royal wedding of crown prince Naruhito to Massako Owada. The physical acts of the royal couple consisted only of sipping sacred sake and making bows—no touching, no hugging, no kissing between the couple, certainly none by the wedding guests.
In Dorothy’s situation, even though she felt very close to Grace, she would have been more socially correct had she bowed her head slightly and then offered only verbal felicitations. In situations like these, it is best to observe the manner in which other wedding guests congratulate family members and then follow their example.
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language
A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities; for example: men don’t hug or embrace when meeting; a handshake is the most common gesture that goes with a greeting; waving a hand to say “goodbye” is the same; a frown shows displeasure, and the wrinkling of one’s nose is a sign of dislike, disgust or disapproval; nodding means “yes”, and shaking one’s head means “no”; pouting has the same meaning—displeasure, bad humor, resentment; a pat on the back of a man or boy indicates approval, praise, encouragement; gritting one’s teeth may express anger, fury, or determination.
The charts on the following pages provide examples of some of the difference:
Different Body Language, Same Meaning
Meaning Body Language in China Body Language in U.S.
“Come here” (beckoning someone to come) hand extended toward person,open palm, palm down, withall fingers crooked in a beckoning motion hand extended toward person,closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving backand forth (in china this samegesture would be consideredoffensive by many)
“Shame on you!” (semi-joking gesture) forefinger of one hand extended, tip touches one’s own face several times quickly; similar to scratching,but with the forefinger straight (usually with the remark “shame on you!”) forefinger of each hand extended, palms down in front of one’s body; one forefinger makes several brushing movements over the back of the other forefinger
‘I’m very full” (after a meal) one or both hands open, lightly patting one’s own stomach hand raised to throat, fingersextended, palm down (oftenwith the remark “I’m full upto here.”)
Same Body Language in Tow Cultures
but with Different Meaning
Meaning in China Body Language Meaning in U. S.
anger, irritation, frustration, remorse stamping one’s foot impatience
thank you; mutual positive feelings speaker or performerclapping at same timeaudience applauds applauding oneself;improper, immodest
Curiosity, sometimes surprise staring, gaping considered impolite;makes people embarrassed,self-conscious
disapproval, hissing “shah” calling for silence
seldom used;occasionally adults may pat head of children to show affection; patting the head of a teenager or adult would cause displeasure and can be insulting pat on head giving comfort, consolation or encouragement; also shows affection
Body Language and Meaning in One Culture;
No Equivalent in Other Culture
Body Language Meaning in U.S.
chewing one’s fingernails emotional stress, worried, doesn’t know what to do
thumbing one’s nose (one thumb on tip of own nose, fingers curled and moving together) defiance, contempt
wagging one’s finger (forefinger of one hand raised, other fingers clasped, the raised forefinger is wagged from side to side) warning not to do something; indicating that what the other person is doing is wrong
thumb down (arm crooked in front of body, closed fist, thumb extended down, one or several downward movements) rejection of a proposal, idea, person; nonverbal way of saying a strong “no”
winking (quick closing of one eye, generally with a smile and slight nod) may show several feelings; understanding, approval, encouragement, trying to get across a message, solidarity
touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger “It’s me” “I’m the one” (to westerners, the gesture would seem slightly funny)
using an open hand to cover one’s mouth while speaking (generally used by older people) to show confidentiality and secrecy; sometimes no meaning
using both hands (when one would be enough) in offering something to a visitor or another person respect
(when one’s tea cup is being refilled by the host or hostess) putting one or both hands upright, palm open, beside the cup “Thank you”
upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touch boy and girl in love; a good match
The examples in the charts are by no means complete, but are enough to illustrate the diversity of body language and to show the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language.
The study of body language should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
A word of general advice: when one communicates in a certain language, it is generally advisable to use the nonverbal behavior that goes with that particular language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better。
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge Xu Mingwu, Prof for his assistance in this study.
[1] Fast, Julius. 1971. Body Language . Pocket Books, N.Y.
[2] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan’en. 1997. The Practical Body Language. Hua Wen Press.
[3] Robinett, Betty W. 1978. Teaching English to speakers of other Language: Substance and Technique. McGraw-hill, N.Y.
[4] Samovar L. A. 1981. Understanding Intercultural Communication. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[5] Shen Minxian. 1999. The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School. Shanghai Education Vol. 12.
[6] Stern H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. London: Oxford university press.
[7] 毕继万 《跨文化非语言交际》,1999,外语教学与研究出版。
[8] 邓炎昌 《语言与文化》, 1989,外语教学与研究出版社。
[9] 赵艳萍 《文化与交际》, 1999,中国人民大学出版社。
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几十年来,我国的外语教学走过不少弯路。如今,随着社会的快速发展,交际文化涉及面非常广,从日常见面问候、称赞、致谢、道歉到了解掌握委婉语、禁忌语乃至体态语言等,所以在中学英语教学中,我们要在培养学生英语语言能力的同时,更多地让同学们识别和了解英汉两种交际文化的差异。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:交际能力与交际文化相关论文。仅供大家参考!
交际能力与交际文化全文如下:
我们进行语言教学的根本目的是什么?是学习、研究语言本身,还是掌握语言这个工具?大家知道,语言具有社会交际功能,是一种交际工具。我们外语教学的目的是要在打好扎实的语言基础知识,进行认真严格的听、说、读、写训练的基础上,培养听、说、读、写的交际能力。这一教学目的被明确写进了国家教委颁布的英语教学大纲。
几十年来,我国的外语教学走过不少弯路。解放以后很长一段时间,由于种种原因,我国的外语教学只是偏重语言形式(语音、语法、词义)的讲解传授,培养出不少的学生,他们精通语法规则,却只会认读,不会听说,不能真正具备交际能力。改革开放以后,国外先进的语言教学理论与教学手段得以引进,我国的外语教学水平提高得很快,尤其是明确提出了外语教学的主要目的是培养学生的交际能力,其意义是十分重大的。
那么什么是交际能力?它的内涵是什么呢?交际能力是一个语言学术语,它是针对语言能力而言的。语言能力通常是指语言规则内在化的体系,即语音、词汇、语法等语言规则体系;而交际能力的概念不仅包括语言能力,还包括语言运用,说通俗一点就是能否恰当地使用语言的能力。看来要完成某一门语言的交际能力的培养,就不可避免地要对使用这种语言的国家的文化进行了解与学习,因为语言与文化是密不可分的。
文化是一个涵义极广的概念。《辞海》里对文化是这样定义的:从广义上说,文化是指人类社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富与精神财富的总和。但为便于区分,人们习惯上将文化分为两类,把社会、政治、经济、文学、艺术、历史、哲学、科技成就等称为知识文化;把社会习俗、生活习惯、思维方式及行为准则等称为交际文化或常识文化。本文着重探讨的是交际文化。
当然,人类文化中有着许许多多共性的东西。但也不可否认,不同的民族、不同的文化之间也存在着差异,尤其是在交际文化方面,东西方之间存在着较大的差异,这给我们学习与正确使用英语带来一定的困难。有时对同一个词汇,对同一个称呼,对同一个手势,对同一句话,英美人的理解与中国人的理解就大不一样。所以我们的英语教学,几乎是从第一天起就开始接触东西方两种交际文化差异这个难题。
交际文化涉及面非常广,从日常见面问候、称赞、致谢、道歉到了解掌握委婉语、禁忌语乃至体态语言等,所以在中学英语教学中,我们要在培养学生英语语言能力的同时,更多地让同学们识别和了解英汉两种交际文化的差异。
中国人见到老师总是称呼:“老师,您早”;而像我们中学英语课堂上常用的“Good morning, Teach-er"就不是太正确,因为在英语里teacher只是一种职业,一般不用作称呼,应改为"Good morning, Sir"或"Good morning,Madame"。
“小张、小李”在汉语里是很亲切的称呼,而用“小米勒”称呼一位英国青年却是不礼貌的;用汉语称呼“张老、李老、老人家”,中国老人听得心里美滋滋的,很自然地接受年轻人对他们的尊敬和照顾。可是英美老人对此却不习惯。
几年前一个美国退休教师讲学团来我系讲学十天,我们的接待工作热情周到。有一位老先生临别对笔者说:“I have been spoiled these days"。因为在美国,个人均讲究独立,老人也不例外,否则他的自尊心将受到伤害。
笔者见到我系年轻的外籍教师,称赞他“You speak very good Chinese"时,他总是笑着回答:"Oh,thank you!",其实他只会说一点极简单的汉语;而当笔者称赞中国学生"Your English is very good”,他不管心里多高兴,嘴里却说“No, no,My English is not gOOd enough,"其实他英语说得真是不错,但谦虚是美德嘛。然而如果这样回答英国老师的赞扬,就不太得体了,因为在这种场合他总是希望得到Thank you这样一类肯定的答复。
反之亦然。英美学生学汉语也要首先了解中国的交际文化。笔者一同学在某大学给外国留学生讲授汉语。一天,他请新同学作自我介绍,一位同学很认真地用汉语说:“我没结婚,没有孩子。”这句话中国人听起来总觉得那么别扭。老师纠正他说,汉语只要说没结婚就够了,在中国人印象中没结婚一般是不会有孩子的。这位留学生对中国的交际文化了解不够。
禁忌语和体态语言也属于交际文化范畴。我国电影的“金鸡奖”,先译成Golden Cock Prize,谁料到cOck一词除"公鸡"外,还有"雄性器官"的意思,在英语里属于禁忌语,后改译为Golden RoOster Prize。伸出食指和中指,中国人表示"二",可美国人表示V(胜利);我们用大拇指和食指表示"八",可我们的"八"字造型在美国人的眼里却是"二",就这个"二"和"八",在中美交往中闹出过不少笑话。
英汉交际文化上的差异很多,这里只信手拈来几个例子,不--赘述。
1、要明确中学英语教学的主要目的,时刻不忘培养学生的为交际初步运用外语的能力这个根本目标。
2、《全日制中学英语教学大纲》(1990)对英语交际文化的教学提出了具体的要求,即教学大纲的附表一--功能意念项目简表。我们的英语教师要充分意识到这个附表的重要意义,努力完成教学任务。
3、教师要理智地对待不同文化间的差异。在介绍一种文化内容时,要持中立态度,不要轻易他说别人的如何不好,我们的如何好。反之亦然。
4、要充分利用我们现在使用的教材Junior English for China,这套教材将中国文化与英美文化交织在一起,要不失时机地向学生进行交际文化差异的教学。
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生产力经济学是研究社会生产方式统一体中的生产力及其运动规律的经济学分支学科。 研究社会生产力发展运动规律的学科。 把人们对生产力认识的注意力从过去局限于生产力要素分解引导到从生产力要素的构成和结合上来把握生产力,从生产力要素不同的构成和结合方式上去求得最佳的经济效益的一门新兴科学。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS。仅供大家参考!
AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS(衰老和生产力经济学家)全文如下:
Abstract:-Economists' productivity over their careers and as measured by publication in leading journals declines very sharply with age. There is no difference by age in the probability that an article submitted to a leading journal will be accepted. Rates of declining productivity are no greater among the very top publishers than among others, and the probability of acceptance is increasingly related to the author's quality rather than the author's age.
It is well known that productivity declines with age in a wide range of activities. Lehman (1953) suggests an early peak in productivity in a variety of scientific and artistic endeavors, and Diamond (1986) documents the pattern for several scholarly pursuits. Levin and Stephan (1992) provide clear evidence that this decline exists even after careful attempts to account for individual and cohort differences. Fair (1994) finds declines in physical ability among elite runners, as does Lydall (1968,pp. 113 passim) in physical abilities of the population generally. In this study we examine productivity declines in our own field. The main new results arise from our use of two different types of information, the equivalent of household and establishment data, to study the stone field over essentially the same period of time. Section I discusses the general results on aging and productivity, whereas section II presents evidence of the importance of heterogeneity.
Using the American Economic Association (AEA) Directory of Members, we identified tenured economics faculty at 17 top research institutions and obtained the years of their Ph.D. degrees.[1] With the citation index of the Journal of Economic Literature we replicated portions of the curricala vitae of each of the 208 economists currently in the economics departments of those institutions who received Ph.D. degrees between 1959 and 1983.[2]
To measure productivity we construct three indexes, combining papers published in refereed journals. Prior research suggests that, at least in terms of salary determination, the returns from nonreferred publications are quite low Sauer (1988), so that we ignore such publications in calculating these measures. I1 weights an article by the journal where it appears based on citations to that journal, using values generated by Laband and Piette (1994). This index distinguishes strongly among journals. For example, the Journal of Political Economy has a weight of 59.1, whereas Economic Inquiry has a weight of 7.9. In constructing I1 we use the weights associated with the decade in which the articles were published. I2 distinguishes somewhat less among journals by assigning all articles in the nine "core" journals identified by Laband and Piette a value of 1, whereas all other journals are valued at 0.5.[3] Finally, I3 gives all papers a weight of 1. Coauthored articles were given half credit, consistent with Sauer's (1988) findings on the economic returns to coauthorship.[4]
We measure the change in productivity over the life cycle by the percentage change in the number of publications from 9-10 years past the Ph.D. to the periods 14-15 years and then 19-20 years after. For most of the elite economists the base period is equivalent (accounting for publication lags) to the time of tenure, when one might expect that incentives to produce are at a peak. Using two-year publication records at each point reduces the effects of noise in the performance measures. One might argue that still other scientific life-cycle mileposts (e.g., attaining a full professorship) should be accounted for too (and to some extent the 14-15-year point does this). But our main purpose is simply to provide detailed evidence on the relationship to age, and our data are not sufficient to infer the impact of every possible milepost.
Table 1 contains data on productivity loss by Ph.D. vintage measured by each of the three indexes. If we consider I1 and I2, the two indexes that take journal quality into account, the decline appears to be quite substantial. Between years 9-10 and 14-15 elite economists as a group lose 29 to 32% of their output. From years 9-10 to 19-20 they lose 54 to 60%. In other words, productivity losses are on the order of 5 % per year from the time of peak productivity. However, the losses do not appear to accelerate over these 10 years of the economists' work lives. The loss from year 10 to year 20 is approximately twice that from year 10 to year 15.
Another way to study the age-productivity relationship is to examine journals rather than individuals. The first row in each pair of years in table 2 shows the ages of authors of full-length refereed articles in several leading journals (American Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, and Quarterly Journal of Economics).[5] The median age of authors in the 1980s and 1990s was 36. Scholars over age 50 when their studies are published are a minute fraction of all authors in these journals. Creative economics at the highest levels is mainly for the young. That is as true in the 1990s as it was in the 1960s, although the age distribution of authors does seem to have shifted slightly rightward in the late 1970s.
The second row in each pair in table 2 shows the age distributions of random samples of the membership of the American Economic Association in years near those for which the authors' ages were tabulated.[6] The distributions are heavily concentrated between 36 and 50. Decadal variations reflect rapid expansion of American universities in the middle and late 1960s, stagnation in the 1970s and much of the 1980s, and a possible fragmentation of the profession in the 1980s as specialized associations expanded. A substantial percentage of AEA members is over age 50 implying that older economists are greatly underrepresented among authors in major journals relative to their presence among those who view themselves as part of the economics profession.[7]
Among the several groups of physical scientists analyzed by Levin and Stephan (1992) the decline of productivity (high-quality publishing) with age was very pronounced. McDowell's (1982) small samples of scholars in a variety of disciplines suggest less rapid declines in productivity with age (in publications unweighted by quality), with the sharpest declines and earliest peaks in the "hard" sciences, and later peaks among English professors and historians. The evidence from our two very different types of samples of economists and economics publishing that account for the quality of publications suggests that, for whatever reason, economics is at least as much a "young person's game" as are the physical sciences.
The evidence in section I documents the decline in productivity at the sample means. Information on the age-productivity relationship at the extremes of the sample is interesting in its own right and might help shed some light on the possible causes of the apparent decline in productivity with age. The simplest test compares productivity losses among the top early performers with that of the entire sample of economists at elite institutions. Among the top 10% of early producers the mean values of I1, I2, and I3 at year 20 were 64, 50, and 22%, respectively. These means are quite close to those listed for the entire sample in table 1. Thus on average early promise seems to be sustained in this sample. Of the 12 top researchers on whom we have 20 years of data, five were still among the top dozen producers at year 20.
These conclusions are confirmed when we examine the entire sample. For each index Ij, j = 1, 2, 3, we estimate b0 and b1 in
Multiple line equation(s) cannot be represented in ASCII text. (1)
Table 3 reports the parameter estimates. For all three indexes productivity in year 20 is positively and significantly related to productivity in year 10. There is also substantial productivity loss. The joint hypothesis that b0 = 1 and b1 = 0 (i.e., no productivity loss) is rejected (F-statistics of 134, 152, and 39, respectively). Productivity loss is least severe in I3, which weights all journals equally, regardless of quality.
If productivity losses were less among economists with high early productivity (high Ij,10), b1 would be negative. In fact, for two of the three indexes the estimated b1is effectively zero. We cannot reject the hypothesis of a linear relationship between late and early productivity. Only for I3 does it appear that productivity loss is higher for top early producers, and even here the effect is quite small. An economist in the top 10% of this sample at year 10 loses only an additional 0.5 (unweighted) paper compared to an average researcher in this sample at year 10. The very top producers in this elite sample keep on producing high-quality research, but at a slower rate. Those who were not at the top early in their careers slow down as rapidly as the top people, but their slowdown leads them to publish increasingly in lower quality outlets.
Another way of examining heterogeneity is to look at how authors of different quality free in the publication process conditional on their efforts. We obtained data on a random sample of initial submissions to a major general journal during a four-month period in 1991. (Some of the data were initially supplied by the journal's office for use in Hamermesh (1994).) Refereeing at this journal is double-blind, so that the chance that referees (though possibly not the editors) were affected by authors' reputations is reduced. The ages of the authors of these 313 papers are measured as of 1993 to account for the probable two-year average lag between the submission of a paper and its publication.
The simple fact in these additional data is that acceptance rates at this journal are remarkably constant by author's age. The probabilities of an article being accepted are 0.122, 0.114, and 0.123 in the three age groups 50, respectively.[8] On average there is no decline with age in the acceptance rate of papers submitted to this journal.[9] Probits on the acceptance of a submission that also included variables indicating whether the author was a member of the AEA, was in a top 20 department (as listed in Blank, 1991), was resident in North America, or was female, and the author's prior citation record yield an identical conclusion. The declining presence of older authors in top economics journals does not occur because older authors who keep submitting papers suffer higher rejection rates.
The probits included interaction terms between indicator variables for age and the extent of citations. (Low-cited economists were defined as those with fewer than 10 citations per year, well-cited with at least 10.) As figure 1 clearly shows, acceptance rates for each age group differ sharply by citation status. Comparing authors age 36-50 to those over 50, it is quite clear that the degree of heterogeneity increases with age. This appears to be less true in comparing the oldest to the youngest group, but that inference is due mainly to a very small sample. (Only six authors under age 36, the future superstars of the profession, were well cited.) The general tenor of the combined results from this sample is that the profession signals to less able scholars that their work no longer meets the profession's highest standards, and most of them respond by reducing their submissions to the highest quality journals.
We have followed the careers of economists and measured the demographic characteristics of publishers in leading journals. The evidence seems quite clear that publishing diminishes with age, especially publishing in leading journals, at rates as rapid as in the physical sciences. Indeed, remarkably few older people publish successfully in the scholarly outlets on which the profession places the highest value. As economists age, those who were the most productive early in their careers are among the few "survivors" still contributing to scholarship through the leading scholarly outlets.
Whether this relationship is due to natural declines in capacity or decreased incentives to produce is extremely difficult to discern. Unlike athletes, where it is likely that pure physical deterioration causes the reduction in productivity with age, among scholars even the fairly subtle facts that we have uncovered can be marshaled as support for each of these competing hypotheses. Without direct observation on how scholars' use of time changes as they age, we are unlikely to be able to distinguish between explanations of the declining ageproductivity relationship in science.
Berger, Mark, and Frank Scott, "Changes in U.S. and Southern Economics Deparment Rankings over Time," Growth and Change 21 (Summer 1990), 21-31.
Blank, Rebecca, "The Effects of Double-Blind versus Single-Blind Reviewing," American Economic Review 81 (Dec. 1991), 10411067.
Diamond, Arthur, "The Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Mathemati cians and Scientists," Journal of Gerontology 41 (1986), 520-525.
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俄语属于斯拉夫语族的东斯拉夫语支。主要在俄罗斯和前苏联的其它成员国中使用,在华沙条约的成员国里曾经被学校广泛作为第一外语教学。在苏联时期,俄语在其加盟共和国中被大大的强调。虽然很多前苏联的国家现在开始强调当地语言的重要性,但是俄语仍然是这些地区最广泛使用的语言,并且也是这些国家进行交流时使用的语言。挪威俄语是俄语和挪威语的混合语。是俄罗斯的唯一官方语言,哈萨克斯坦 、 白俄罗斯 、 吉尔吉斯斯坦官方语言之一。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的语言教育论文范文:俄语语言教学与文化导入。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
摘 要:语言是文化的一部分,并对文化起着重要作用。有些社会学家认为,语言是文化的基石——没有语言,就没有文化;从另一个方面看,语言又受文化的影响,反映文化。可以说,语言反映一个民族的特征,它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景,而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。语言与文化互相影响,互相作用;理解语言必须了解文化,理解文化必须了解语言。
在俄语教学中常常会遇到如下情况:有些既没有生僻词、也没有复杂语法结构的听力或阅读理解材料,学生常听不懂或是不理解,此原因大多是遇到了原文中所涉及的文化背景知识,而学习者却不了解背景知识。其实,看似较为容易的听力或阅读理解材料,却是一项复杂的语言与思维相互作用的过程。理解准确与否在很大程度上取决于语言知识及文化背景知识的掌握程度。例如,据说,清朝“洋务运动一的代表人物李鸿章到美国访问时,主人称赞其妻很漂亮,李鸿章客气地回答:“哪里,哪里”。美国人不知道这是中国人谦虚的表现,以为要其指出具体哪里漂亮,于是尴尬地说:“全身”。 这就是文化差异。中国是一个礼仪之邦,谦虚在中国认为是一种美德,是有教养的表现。是中国文化特色的礼貌表现,中国人听到赞美之词时,往往是先否定对方的赞扬,然后再客气一番,以示自谦。
这个事例非常形象直观地反映出了语言和文化的相辅相成。由此可见:“语言的存在不能脱离文化,不能脱离社会继承决定了我们生活的实质”(著名语言学家萨丕尔),因此俄语教学必须重视文化差异并循序渐进导入教学中。我们不仅要教授学生掌握扎实的语言基本知识和技能,还要使学生了解俄罗斯国家的历史和文化,从而使学习者能够正确地理解和使用语言,达到俄语教学的目的。前苏联学者维列夏金(E.M.ВЕРЩАгин)和科斯托马罗夫(В.Г.КОСТОМАОВ)创建的俄语语言国情学(Лингвострановедение)二十年多年来为我国的俄语教学增添了新的活力和内容,它打破了传统的单一式的纯语言教学模式,融语言与文化为一体,把语言国情知识即文化背景知识列入外语教学的重要环节,为继语音、词汇、语法、修辞后的第五方面,这五方面相互作用,相互关连,共同构建一个完整的教学体系。
众所周知,语言承载着丰富的文化内涵。语言进入交际中,就存在对文化内涵的理解和表达的问题。理解和表达是跨文化交际关键问题。语言和文化密切相关,同样,俄语教学也不能脱离俄罗斯国家的文化和历史背道而驰。俄语教学中,把语言与文化相融合,这已经成为俄语教学工作者所普遍认同的一个原则:俄语教学不是只解决词形变化问题,不能只学会按词类释义掌握词汇,不是停留在掌握俄语句子结构上,它需要扩展出语言本身的范围,深入到语言以外的现实生活中去,这样学生才完全地掌握语言、运用语言到实践中,达到交际目的,这个原则是建立在七十年代诞生于前苏联的一门新兴学科一语言国情学的基础之上的,前苏联学者Е.М.Bерещагин和В.Г.КОСТОМАРОВ在《语言与文化》 即《Язык и культура》书中指出:“语言国情学是对外俄语教学的一个方面,它通过语言的载蓄功能(кумулятивная функЦия),向教学对象介绍苏联当代生活典型形象以保障教学的实际性。完成语言教学任务,提高学生文化素养,进行思想教育,其教学方法具有语言教学的基本功能,即在传授语言的过程中用俄语讲解国情。同时语言又反映着使用该语言的民族的文化。由此可见,语言又是文化的载体,这就是语言的载蓄功能。俄语语言教学的目的是培养学生的俄语交际应用能力,而交际的过程始终伴随着文化的交流,语言背景知识是交际获取的基础。
2.1阶段渐进原则
任何教学活动都是循序渐进的过程,教学与文化也是如此。初期阶段的文化导入应主要介绍在日常生活交际方面俄汉文化的差异,以及在语言形式和运用中的具体表现,从而使学生掌握日常生活中俄语语言的交际能力。第二阶段的主要内容是介绍由于文化差异所引起的俄汉词语、成语含义及运用方面的差异,使学生熟悉俄汉语义的差别并深入理解俄语表达法所涉及的文化内涵,从而助力学生恰当地运用这些词汇进行语言交际。
2.2 实用实践原则
实用实践原则所导人的文化内容与学生所学的语言内容紧密相连,同时考虑到学生今后所从事的职业性质等因素。一方面使学生认知语言与文化的关系不抽象空洞;另一方面文化教学紧密结合语言交际实践,可以激发学生学习语言和文化的兴趣,产生良好的效果。
2.3 适合时代原则
所谓适合时代,主要指在教学内容、方法上的适度。教学内容的适度除了以上提到的实用性和阶段性原则外,还应考虑到该文化目的代表性问题,属于主流时代文化性,有广泛代表性的内容。因为文化的内容非常丰富,也极其复杂。同时还应处理好文化内容的历时性和共时性之间的关系,重点应放在共时文化上,适当引入一些历时的内容,以利于学生了解某些文化习俗和传统的来龙去脉。教学方法上的适度,就是要正确协调好教师讲解和学生自学的关系。应鼓励学生进行大量的课外阅读和实践,与时俱进,增加文化知识积累。教师应成为课外文化学习的组织者和指导者。
2.4 系统规划原则
文化导入最大的问题就是缺乏系统性。教师在教授语言过程中,遇到一些文化现象便顺便一提,对文化教学中的内容和方法也无具体统一要求。因此在制定新的《大学俄语教学课程要求》时,是否应针对俄语教学的文化导入问题增加部分内容,明确文化导入的原则、内容、方法、途径以及要求达到的水平等。这样教师在俄语教学中的文化导入便有纲可依,从而避免文化导入过程中盲目和混乱现象。
3 俄语教学中文化导入的五种方法
3.1 注解法
这是目前所使用的大多数俄语教材所采用的方法。即将教学材料中容易引起学生理解上困难的词语或表达法在课后用专门篇幅加以注释。该方法的特点是灵活、简便、适用于各种语言材料各个阶段对某一语言现象的突出讲解,缺点是无系统性。比如在《新编大学俄语基础教程》第一册第十一课的课文注释(Пояснения к тексту)中,分别介绍了чёРнАя peчкa(黑溪)Летний сад(夏园)、крейсер《ABpopa》(“阿芙乐尔”号巡洋舰)和6eлые ночи(白夜)等文化内容,如果学习该课文之前对有关内容做完整的介绍,对教师讲解课文及学生理解课文都是大有帮助的。
3.2 融合法
融合法指的是将文化内容与语言材料结合在一起的教学方法。如果语言材料本身就是介绍前苏联或独联体文化习俗、词语典故、文学名著、历史事件等,那么教师在教学过程中的进一步讲解就很容易引起学生的兴趣,文化知识和语言的学习可以有潜移默化的效果。
3.3 实践法
实践法是指学生通过具体的语言实践,如听、说、读等学习和了解俄语国家的文化知识,包括看电影和教学录像以及阅读文学作品等:俄苏文学是世界文学史上一颗璀灿的明珠,对俄苏文学作品的阅读也是一种学习外国文化知识的重要方法,一个民族的文学作品是该民族文化的精华部分,是传统文化的积累。当然阅读原文的文学名著难度很大,研究者建议学生可以翻阅中文译文来补充这一部分的内容。
3.4 比较法
比较法是跨文化语言交际教学中的一个极为重要的手段。俄汉两个民族文化上异同,体现了文化共性,也存在文化个性。因此,在教学过程中,语言国情知识的传授必须立足于俄汉两个民族语言文化异同的对比。通过俄汉两种文化的对比,使学生的知识结构不只是停留在表面的认知层次上,而是向纵向方向发展。作为记录人类历史,表达人类生活的思想工具,每一种语言都有其深远的文化背景和文化内涵。比如,俄国人在交往过程中喜欢使用赞语(комплимент).说恭维话,如夸奖妇女的发型、衣着打扮等,对这些夸奖俄罗斯妇女通常会说: “Спасибо!” (谢谢!),而中国妇女就会非常客气地说“不漂亮”。再比如中国人打招呼时常说“您去哪儿?”(Куда вы идёте?”)而俄罗斯人会认为你干涉人家私事,很不礼貌。中国素有“礼仪之邦”之称,一贯提倡“笑迎天下客”、“微笑服务”,而俄罗斯人不习惯对陌生人展露笑容,他们不苟言笑并非不友好,而是受其传统的交际文化及历史的影响,认为微笑会分散注意力,工作时应该思想集中、态度严肃。在与亲朋好友交往时则绽放笑容。
3.5 历史引入法
通过介绍历史人物和历史事件可以拓宽学生的知识面,更好地理解句子。阅读俄语文章要有一定和语言知识,但阅读理解能力的高低不完全是语言水平的问题,文化背景知识必不可少。比如在纪念普希金(A.C.Пушкин)诞辰二百周年的日子里,向学生介绍俄国文学史上第一位举世瞩目的伟大作家的生平及其流芳百世的不朽名著《叶甫盖尼?奥涅金>(《Евгений Онегин》),并介绍对作家少年时代有影响的圣彼得堡附近的普希金城(Пушкино)即沙俄时期的皇村 (Царское село);并使学生了解作家辉煌灿烂而短暂的一生,学生们不但产生了浓厚的学习文化背景知识的热情,而且对俄语语言知识的学习也感兴趣,充分调动学生学习俄语的积极性。
综上所述,可以看到,要想提高学生综合运用语言的能力,除了语言能力、语言因素外,还有必要注意非语言因素。在俄语教学过程中,教师的任务除了是“语音专家和语言寄存器”之外,还应该是俄罗斯国家文化的“传播者”,充分利用这种文化因素,向学生讲解语言,并努力发掘其文化内涵。如果把语言和文化分离,“语言就只是一个空壳”。语音、语法、词汇这些纯语言形式提供的只是语言理解和语言使用的客体信息,剔除语言内的文化内容,离开了语言的文化背景,语言内在的信息难以生存,即使语言规范,也未必有传递信息的作用。因此说,语言学习很重要的一个方面是文化知识学习。俄语教学融入文化导入会使学习者事半功倍。
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随着国家间的交往日益密切,跨文化交际是当今的一大趋势。下面是读文网小编带来的关于跨文化交际论文的内容,欢迎阅读参考!
[摘要]幽默,作为一种语言现象在文学、影视、广告和日常交际中频频出现,给人以轻松、诙谐之感,不仅活跃气氛、缓和矛盾,而且提高人们的精神境界。本文旨在分析影响我们理解幽默语言的障碍并找出解决这种障碍的方法。
[关键词]文化;跨文化交流;理解障碍
幽默普遍存在于各个民族和各种文化当中。它在人们的生活中起着非常重要的作用,特别在人们的交往中体现得尤为明显。它可以使我们在社会交往中保持自我平衡。
幽默不仅是一种特殊的语言形式,而且是文化的一部分。每一种文化都有自己的历史、习俗、习惯、信仰和宗教等等,而正是因为这些因素的存在导致了不同文化中出现了各自特有的幽默。所以要想在跨文化交际中真正地理解幽默。就要了解其文化背景。
一、幽默的概念
幽默是智慧的代名词,是生活的调味品,是交友的香槟酒。自古以来人们就关注幽默这个话题,尽管很难给幽默下定义,但是来自不同领域的学者比如:哲学家、心理学家、美学家、辞典编撰者和修辞学家等,他们都对幽默作了深入地研究,以下就是一些关于幽默的概念。
朗文现代英语字典中对幽默是这样定义的:“幽默能使人愉悦,使人发笑等,或者说幽默是人们对有趣,滑稽等事情做出的认知、反应和表达的能力。”(“Humor issomething which arous amusement,laughter,ete,or thecapacity for recognizing.reacting to or expressing somethingwhich is amusing,funny,etc.”)(Owen Watson,1976:523)
现代汉语字典中是这样解释的:“有趣或可笑而意味深长的。”
中国幽默大师林语堂认为幽默是一种艺术,无论是说还是写,都表达了人们的观点和对真实世界的感知。(林雨堂,2002:23)
从上述概念中我们不难看出幽默必须满足两个基本条件,第一要滑稽或是引人发笑,第二要有深层的含义或发人深省。这两个条件缺一不可。
二、幽默的形式
一般来说,根据定义,幽默可以分成两种。广义上讲,它是指哑剧、滑稽剧、喜剧、漫画等。狭义上讲幽默只包括书本和杂志中的笑话和滑稽的短故事。常见的幽默有以下几种形式:相声、笑话、无厘头(利用表面毫无逻辑关联的语言和肢体动作,使人们有滑稽的感觉。)、恶搞(通过毫无道理的方式,例如在照片上画八字胡,来使观看者感到好笑。)、黑色幽默(20世纪印年代在美国兴起的一个文学流派,对充满矛盾的荒谬的社会现实进行无奈、苦涩的冷嘲热讽。后也指这种无奈、苦涩的表现风格。是一种对现实采取嘲笑抨击,揭露和讽刺,幻想和否定结合在一起的“黑色”的“幽默”。)、冷幽默(是那种淡淡的、在不经意间自然流露的幽默,是让人发愣、不解、深思、顿悟、大笑的幽默,是让人回味无穷的幽默。之所以称之为“冷幽默”,是因为不仅要幽默,还要“冷”。)和白色幽默(白色幽默指令人恐惧而又感到好笑的话或句子)。
三、理解不同文化幽默难的原因
幽默无处不在,但是由于人们生活在不同的文化中,每一种文化都有各自不同的历史,习俗,信仰和宗教等,这些极大地丰富了幽默的内容。但是这也造成了人们理解不同文化中幽默的障碍。
中国语言文字与西方的字母文字有很大的差别,每一个字都有它独特的形、音与意。有很多相同和相近的字,所以人们常常利用这种谐音说幽默的话,这时外国人是很难听明白的。比如“气管炎”,会普通话的外国A--看就明白这是中国人常说的“妻管严”的谐音,但不知道的人就不会听懂。也就不会理解其中的幽默。同样对于不懂汉语的人来说也很难理解中国相声中的幽默,比如:
乙:您的相声说得好啊!
甲:哪里哪里,也就是――马槽改棺材……
乙:怎么讲?
甲:将就材料。
乙:不对不对,您这是拽着胡子过马路……
甲:怎么讲?
乙:牵须(谦虚)。
上文中牵须和谦虚在中文中发音相同,但含义却截然不同,由此而产生了幽默。
而西方是字母文字,它的特点是一词多义,同一个词,由于语境不同就会产生不同的含义,利用这一特点就会产生幽默。例如:
1.Howlongisa shoe?(鞋多大?)One foot.(英尺,脚)。英文中“foot”有两种含义,一个是度量单位“英尺”,一个是“脚”。
2.Why aremovie stars so cool(酷,凉爽)?Becausetheyhave somanyfans(影迷,扇子)。
在这个句子中“cool'’指的是时尚、具有吸引力,很清爽的感觉。“fan”是指影迷。
以上事例说明有时语言就像一座山,难以逾越。对于一个从未学过英语的人来说是无法理解以上幽默的。
中西文化的价值观不同,中国人长期受孔子的儒家思想的影响,讲求“仁”和“礼”,所以在日常生活中中国人都非常友好,善良,与人为善。在人际交往中,人们追寻中庸之道。不愿意引人注目,以保证与周围人的和平相处。相反。在西方社会,宗教已植根于西方人的意识形态中,特别是基督教。他们热衷于变化和不断进取,对人生的态度表现为积极向上,勇于挑战,并富于冒险精神。他们更愿意表达他们内心感受。
正是由于价值观不同造成了文化传统和习俗的不同,有些笑话就需要了解背后的文化才能笑出来。例如:
“一位学者试图分析各国的民族性,每个国家挑出二男一女为一组,分别送到无人的岛上生活。数月后,学者来到英国人住的岛上,看见三个人互不相干地各行其是,问其原因,他们答道:“你没有替我们介绍呀!”
学者又来到法国人住的岛上,见一个男人在院里整理花木。学者问他,那两个人在哪里?他答道:“那女人三个月前是我的情人,从昨天起,她成了他的情人,轮到我整理花木。”
另一个笑话是:一个小男孩报警:“大街上有人打我爸爸!”警察跟着孩子跑去,果然见两人在厮打。警察问:“哪个是你爸爸?”“我也不知道,他们正是为这事打起来的。”
四、如何克服障碍
要想克服理解幽默中产生的障碍,就要不断积累不同国家的文化知识。这个过程也是一个循序渐进的过程。首先,双方要寻求一种共同语言,语言不仅仅是一种交际工具,它传递着不同文化下人们的生活方式、思维方式以及不同的交流模式。
要注重移情与跨文化交际意识的培养。西方笑话题材广泛,涉及西方国家的地理环境、历史事件、文化典故、宗教文化、婚礼习俗文化、民族性格、年龄心态等等。轻松幽默的语言中隐含着丰富的社会文化背景知识。向我们打开了一扇了解西方文化的窗口。仔细解读西方笑话中的文化信息,我们能更好地欣赏其内在的幽默,更能领略西方国家的风俗人情,了解这些民族的心态、生活方式和价值取向等。笑话作为传播文化知识的载体在向我们不断传递着跨文化交际的信息。从各自笑话的主题、社会功能、表现方法和含蓄度的把握程度来看,中西方为本民族文化赋予了不同的形式,正是这些不同的形式构成了整个世界多样的文化。只有尊重各自的文化,用一颗包容和理解的心融入其他文化形式,学会移情,不断增强跨文化交际能力,中国学生才能更好地获取目的语,更自然地融入全球化大潮。
[参考文献]
[1]吕淑湘中国汉语词典[M]北京:中国社会科学院语言研究所,2002
[2]龚嵘Graded EngIish Reading on H to Issues[M],上海:华东理工大学出版社,2002
[3]胡文仲文化与交际[M]北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1998,
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随着国家之间的交流日益密切,跨文化交际中英语的使用频率也越来越高。下面是读文网小编带来的关于跨文化交际英语论文的内容,欢迎阅读参考!
摘 要:我国传统英语教学忽视了对学生跨文化差异意识的培养,导致其跨文化交际能力普遍较低。应改变学生的思维方式,注重学生跨文化差异意识的培养,在课堂教学中把语言教学与文化教学结合起来,并把文化教学寓于语言教学之中,努力探索语言中深刻的文化内涵,增强学生对目的语文化的领悟力和敏感性。在文章中,重点阐述了跨文化交际和英语口语教学的相互关系,一方面跨文化交际在英语口语教学中发挥着重要作用;另一方面,英语口语教学过来能够推动跨文化交际能力的提高。我们的英语口语教学应该紧扣世界英语教育的发展方向,为培养出具有化交际素质的人才而不断努力。
关键词:英语口语教学;跨文化交际;语言文化;风俗习惯;交际能力
在我国,英语学习和英语教学投入多但收益少。英语教师普遍抱怨说,英语难教,口语更难教;在英语学习上已花了几年时间的学生中大多数人的语法很好,书面表达也达到了一定的水平,但还是不能用英语正确流利地表达自己的感觉和意见。众所周知,现代基础英语教学的突出特色之一是重视和加强口语教学,这也是整个英语学习中的一个重要环节。就像听力、阅读和写作一样,英语口语是英语教学中占有统领地位的内容之一。人们普遍认为,英语口语是学生必须掌握的技能之一。那么,使学生掌握这种技能的困难和问题究竟在哪里?这个问题的答案涉及方方面面的因素。在诸多因素中,绝不能忽视英语口语跨文化交际能力的培养,因为它是英语教学的目的之一,而文化知识的传授无疑对语言教学具有重要的作用
一、英语口语教学所面临的问题
培养听、说、读、写的交际能力,这一教学目的被明确写进家教委颁布的英语教学大纲。由于种种原因,我国的外语只是偏重语言形式(语音、语法、词义)的讲解传授,培养的学生大多数精通语法规则,却只会认读,不会听说,不具备交际能力。人们经常称之为“哑巴英语”,这个问题体现在两个方面:一方面在这几年的教学活动之中,我发现随着学生的年龄增长,越来越难让他们开口说英语。原因之一是因为他们对于自己发音没有自信,在读英语或说英语时总是羞于开口,不愿意说出来,生怕说错或是发音有误,受到老师的批评或同学笑。但是随着这几年我国逐渐开始在小学时期就开始进行英育,并且大多数的教师和家长都意识到在小学时期学生的口语教育的重要性,因此这几年相当一部分学生都能够克服开口难,以及怕开口的问题。但是,等到上了高中,尤其是上了大学之后就又出现了第二个方面的为题更为严重的问题:就是无话可说,或者不知道道说什么好。从高中阶段的英语教育开始,英语口语的练习渐渐趋向实质内容的对话,甚至是以英语为工具进行相互讨论或辩论,这个时候就需要学生不仅仅是会说几句问候语,进行简单的公式化对答,而是要求学生们能够就特定问题进行讨论,或者在一个设定的场景中进行有实质内容的对话。这就需要学生们不仅仅有相当的词汇量和英语口语的能力,可以使用各种句型来交流各自的意见;而且更重要的是英语文化有一定的了解,即有话可说,不会双方见面打完了招呼,问候了之后,就没什么可以说的了。这一情况非常常普遍的,我经常发现学生们最常谈的就是天气、爱好等简单的话题。由于对于英语国家文化以及风俗习惯的不了解,使得我们的学生找不到可以用作聊天的合适话题,因为不知道哪些是适当的,哪些是禁忌的;即使开了一个话题也很难深入地交谈,因为不知道哪些问题是可以向一个还不熟悉的外国友人发问的。语言能力是交际能力的基础,然而具备了语言能力并不意味着具备了交际能力。但英语教学中,教师往往比较重视语言的外在形式和语法结构,即培养学生造出合乎语法规则的句子,而忽视了语言的社会环境,特别是语言的文化差异,致使学生难以知道什么场合该说什么话,从而忽视了学生的交际能力。在此,跨文化交际在英语口语教学中的作用作为一个重要问题被提了出来。由于对不同文化的不了解和陌生感,这就使得我们的学生在交际之中经常遇到困难。这样一来,就很难真正深入地训练学生的英语口语技巧和巩固词汇、句型,也不利于提高学生的英语口语能力。因此,我个人认为我们的英语口语教学是离开跨文化交际的。
二、跨文化交际的重要性
“跨文化交际”的英语名称是“intercultural communication”或“cross-cultural communication”。它指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际,也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。由于不同的民族所处的生态、物质、社会及宗教等环境不同,因而各自的语言环境产生了不同的语言习惯、社会文化、风土人情等诸语境因素。不同文化背景造成人们说话方式或习惯不尽相同。因此,在交流中,人们总喜欢用自己的说话方式来解释对方的话语,这就可能对对方的话语做出不准确的推论,从而产生冲突和故障。近年来,随着改革开放步伐的加快,对外交往日益频繁,国与国之间的交流也越来越广泛,特别是社会信息化提高,国际互联网的开通使更多的人足不出户便涉及跨文化交际。时代的变化和要求,使许多语言教师对之表现出浓厚的兴趣,研究这些跨文化交际中的故障问题,对于我们英语教学确实有重大的实际意义。这是因为英语教学不仅是传授语言知识,更重要的是培养学生的交际能力,培养他们应用英语进行跨文化交际的能力。仅仅学会一门外语的语音、语法规则和掌握一定量的词汇并不意味着学会了这门外语能顺利地进行交际。在跨文化交际中,交际的双方若不能进入同一文化背景之中,就容易产生不解或误解,从而使交际失败。不同的民族、不同的文化之间存在着差异,尤其是在交际文化方面,东西方之间存在着较大的差异,这给我们学习与正确使用英语带来一定的困难。有时对同一个词汇,对同一个称呼,对同一个手势,对同一句话,英美人的理解与中国人的理解就大不一样。所以我们的英语教学,几乎是从第一天起就开始接触东西方两种交际文化差异这个难题。事实上,英语教学的根本目的就是为了实现跨文化交际,
就是为了与不同文化背景的人进行交流。大面积地、全面地提高英语教学的效率和质量,大幅度地提高学生的英语应用能力,既是中国国民经济发展的迫切需要,同时也是跨世纪我国英语教学的一项紧迫任务。
三、跨文化交际与英语口语教学的相互关系
首先,跨文化交际在英语口语教学中发挥着重要作用。在中国,人们对跨文化交际在英语口语教学中的重要性认识还比较低。他们觉得,只要会外语,剩下的凭常识、按习惯就可以解决。在中国文化背景下属于常识性的语言,换在某个外国的背景下可能成为一种不合常识的语言;在某种文化下属于很礼貌的话,在另一种文化下可能被视为无礼的话;一种文化下的人怀着敬意说出的话,另一种文化下的人可能理解成是一句带侮辱性的话;拿汉语的习惯去套外语,有的时候套得对,有的时候则会套错。语言是文化的产物,它具有深刻的文化内涵,与不同的对象,在什么样的情况下,如何表述一个思想,与文化背景密切相关。“如何说”、“不说什么”,有时候比“说什么”更加重要。
其次,英语口语教学又反过来能够推动跨文化交际能力的提高。这是因为外语教学不仅是传授语言知识,更重要的是要培养学生的交际能力,培养他们应用外语进行跨文化交际的能力。从这个意义出发,将外语教学看做是跨文化教育的一环更加恰当一些。于是,我们也可以说英语口语教学是培养学生跨文化交际能力的重要途径之一。在英语口语教学的具体实践过程中,学生们通过使用英语与对方讨论或者交谈,可以增强语言的输入与储备,从而充实社会文化知识,增强语言得体性意识,提高口头交际能力。而到了英语口语教学的高级阶段,则可以着重导入知识文化(不直接影响准确传递信息的语言和非语言的文化因素),从中西文化差异的深层入手,介绍中西方思维方式、价值观念、认知行为、交际关系以及言语表达方式等方面的差异,进而增强跨文化交际的能力。
总之,一方面跨文化交际是英语口语教学中十分重要的一部分,要提高英语口语能力就不能够离开跨文化交际;另一方面,英语口语教学的深入也能反过来推动跨文化交际能力,通过在口语的实践过程中可以进一步培养跨文化交际的技巧和增加语言文化差异的知识。因此,跨文化交际与英语口语教学是相辅相成,密不可分的。
三、英语口语教学中培养跨文化交际能力的策略
跨文化交际能力(Cross-cultural Communicative Com-petence)是指根据不同文化背景的语言交际者的习惯得体地、合适地使用语言的能力,包括语言能力、非语言能力、跨文化理解能力和跨文化适应能力等方面。跨文化交际能力是口语能力密不可分的一部分。大学英语教学必须注重学生跨文化差异意识的培养,在课堂教学中把语言教学与文化教学结合起来,并把文化教学寓于语言教学之中,努力探索语言中深刻的文化内涵,增强学生对目的语文化的领悟力和敏感性。教师在授课中要注意以下几个问题。
1.改变学生的思维方式。思维方式对跨文化交际有很大的影响,由于中西不同民族的思维方式不同,在交际过程中常常出现一些困惑,影响交际效果,甚至造成一些误解。因此,在口语教学中,让学生了解文化背景知识,培养学生认识并接受外国人的思维方式是非常必要的。它是跨文化交际中学会准确、得体交际的前提,是培养学生语用能力的关键所在。
2.介绍文化背景知识,注意中西文化习俗、价值观念和思维方式等差异比较。中西方文化的差异主要根源于中西方文化习俗、价值观念和思维方式等的不同。在思维方式上,中国人习惯采用归纳思维的方式,而英美人则习惯采用演绎思维方式,因此在教学过程中对于课文的理解必须要把握思维方式的差异,教师应结合文化和价值上的差异及思维方式的不同引导学生用英语思维,换角度换身份的理解文章内容,从而达到更好的教学效果。
3.采用对比教学法,结合词汇文化内涵进行词汇解释,扩充口语交际词汇。词汇的文化内涵是各民族在不同文化背景下产生的对特定事物的独特感情评价及联想。词汇是文化信息的载体,各种文化特征都在本族语的词汇里留下它们的印记。因此教学中可以抓住以下英汉差异类别:
(1)英汉语言中指称意义或语面意义相同的词语在文化上可能有不同的含义,如英语中的farmer与汉语中的农民之间的文化含义上的不同,又如英语中的peacock,指爱慕虚荣、炫耀等,而汉文化中的孔雀则是吉祥的意思。
(2)英汉不同文化对相同的现象所作的观念划分的差别在词语及语义上的显示,如英语的亲属称谓的命名较之汉语要简单得多,如英语的uncle就对应汉语的伯父、叔父、舅父、姨夫、姑父。
(3)有的词英语有,汉语没有;或汉语有,英语没有,即“词汇空缺”的现象。如英语中的前后缀多达100个以上。这种语言现象在汉语词典中是没有的,这体现了西方人的个人奋斗,个人主义价值取向。
(4)具有文化附加意义的词、词组,包括某些习语、俗语、典故的文化内涵。如:asacountry that carvedits swath across so much of the world….中的carveditss wath不是字面“割下稻草”之意,而是“出尽风头、惹人注目”之意。因此,为了让学生能够得体地运用英语,英语教学中的文化导入以及文化差异的比较必须以词汇为先导,通过词汇蕴涵文化差异的比较,使学生认识并掌握中西方文化的差异,逐渐培养跨文化差异的意识,提高跨文化交际能力。
引导学生广泛接触西方文化材料。歌德学院科研处布尔曼女士(R.Buhlman)在她的《阅读是交际的一个方面》一文中强调:阅读实际上就是读者与作者之间进行的一种交际活动。读者为了获得所需的信息,就必须运用各种阅读技能进行判断、推论,找出作者所要表达的观点和信息,并对它们做出评价。由此可见阅读即书面交际能力的培养。在大学英语教学中,教师要引导学生利用课外时间广泛阅读西方英语文学作品、报纸杂志和时事评论等材料,从中吸取文化知识,拓宽西方文化视野,提高跨文化交际能力。另外教师还要充分利用直观教具进行英语文化教学,如幻灯片、录像、电影等。英语录像、电影的内容本身就是文化某个侧面的缩影,不但可以提供反映文化的生活及社会场景,还有助于让学生通过真实的场景理解词、句的文化内涵。例如电影“TheDevilWearsParada”反映了21世纪美国现实主义的画面,通过组织学生观看,可以让他们切实地感受到美国的时代风貌、人文观念和拜金主义。
5.课外活动丰富文化教学。由于我国高校的外语教学课堂,在教学时间、教学方法、教学过程等诸多方面都存在不足,难以独立承担起培养学生跨文化交际意识和能力。因此,课外活动是对学生进行文化意识导入的重要阵地,为了弥补课堂教学的不足,应更多地利用课外活动时间,给学生创造出更多了解英语文化,培养交际能力的条件和机会。学校可以利用学生的课余时间,定期或不定期地组织一些英语文化知识讲座,邀请学校留学归国的教师或外籍教师来介绍一些文化习俗方面的知识,也可以举办外国影视或音乐欣赏会,让学生更多地了解英语国家人们的学习、生活、爱情、工作等方面的状况,更真切地去感受西方文化。还可以通过组织英语知识竞赛、英语演讲或辩论赛等活动,把语言文化学习和学生的课余生活充分结合起来。总之,在外语教学的过程中,广大英语教师应该更新陈旧教育观念,不断地尝试新方法、新策略,把社会文化知识的传授贯穿于语言知识与语言技能的各个环节之中。另外,跨文化交际能力的培养并非只重视文化而不重视语言,也不是以文化为中心,而是从文化的角度去教语言。作为教学的有机组成部分,跨文化交际能力的培养也是一个长期的系统工程。大学外语教师应在培养学生获取语言知识的同时,培养社会交际的能力。这是英语教学非常重要的任务。
参考文献:
[1]Larry A.Samovar,Richard E.Porter,Lisa A.Stefani,Communication Between Cultures(跨文化交际)[M].外语教学与研究出版社,2000.
[2]陈舒.文化与外语教学的关系[M].国外外语教学,1997.
[3]赖招仁.试论跨文化交际中的文化障碍与外语教学[M].龙岩师专学报,1998.
[4]关世杰.跨文化交流学―提高涉外交流的学问[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2002.
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我国教育部于2004年特别制定并于2007年进一步修订了《大学英语课程教学要求》(下称《要求》),规定大学英语课程设置要有助于学生“个性化学习方法的形成”和“自主学习能力的发展”, 同时指导性地将大学英语选修课划分为:语言技能、语言应用、语言文化和专业英语四大类课程,明确了除“保证学生在整个大学期间的英语语言水平稳步提高”外,大学英语课程还应着重提高其“综合文化素养”, 以适应我国经济发展和国际交流的需要。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:语言文化类英语选修课中批判性思维的培养相关论文。仅供大家参考!
语言文化类英语选修课中批判性思维的培养全文如下:
摘 要:本文从当前大学英语选修课建设亟待规范和创新的实际要求出发,以有关批判性思维的理论研究作为依据,结合《大学英语课程教学要求》的有关指导思想, 针对性地对大学英语选修课中语言文化类课程中自主学习能力、教学模式设计和课程评估方法提出了一系列建设性探讨。
关键词: 大学英语 语言文化类选修课 批判性思维 课程设计。
在过去几年里, 我国高校公共英语教学中已经普遍增设了选修课( 或称“ 通选课”) 。高等院校大学英语教师们对如何建设科学、规范和有效的选修课体系进行了大量实践探索, 有关语言教学研究者们也就此撰写了许多相关研究论述。然而,其中专门针对关于选修课中语言文化类课程中批判性思维培养的论述却并不多见。这使得开展文化类选修课的英语教师在需要完成更高教学任务要求的同时缺乏相关的教学理论的指导。随着英语选修课建设的不断深入, 如何科学规范地开展语言文化类课程教学, 通过有针对性的课程设计帮助学生培养其批判性思维已成为一个值得所有大学英语教师思考的课题。
我国教育部于2004年特别制定并于2007年进一步修订了《大学英语课程教学要求》(下称《要求》),规定大学英语课程设置要有助于学生“个性化学习方法的形成”和“自主学习能力的发展”, 同时指导性地将大学英语选修课划分为:语言技能、语言应用、语言文化和专业英语四大类课程,明确了除“保证学生在整个大学期间的英语语言水平稳步提高”外,大学英语课程还应着重提高其“综合文化素养”, 以适应我国经济发展和国际交流的需要。
《要求》所建议的大学英语中的语言文化类选修课,是以英语为载体,对非英语专业本科生实施的文化类选修课程教学,根据各校师资、教学资源和学生的具体情况进行开设, 以充分尊重学生个性为前提由学生在全校范围内自由选择。这类课程尤其“兼有工具性和人文性”,是帮助学生“拓宽知识、了解世界文化的素质教育课程”(《要求》,2007)。
目前我国各高校已开设的语言文化类选修课主要涉及: 文学诗歌类, 如《美国文学赏析》、《英诗鉴赏》;人文历史类,如《西方简史》、《美国文学史》; 文化知识类, 如《西方礼仪文化》、《美国大学校园文化概览》;以及艺术鉴赏类,如《影视作品欣赏》、《艺术鉴赏》等等。
然而, 这些文化类英语选修课的开展主要还处于开课教师各自为政, 根据自己的经验、兴趣及特长对所开课程进行设计和展开教学的阶段,这就使得选修课教学在为大学英语教育注入了“个性化”和“提高学生综合文化素养”等特色的同时出现了因教师对课程设计整体把握不同导致的“科学性”、“规范性”以及“有效性”的千差万别。
要讨论批判性思维, 我们应该首先对西方学术界给出的一些具有代表性的定义进行一个简单回顾。就曾对学界纷繁复杂的论述进行了一次梳理, 认为常见的与批判性思维紧密相关的还有“ 批判性分析(critical analysis)”、“批判性意识(criticalconsciousness)”、及“批判性自我反思(criticalreflection)”等概念。 他认为批判性思维的“批判之力”主要在于思维者接受某种观点或结论时进行评价和辨别的能力, 这种能力使思维者在假设的基础上检验命题,并发现偏见和正确看法、以及看法与事实之间的区别。被誉为现代批判性思维之父的美国哲学家、心理学家和教育家杜威将批判性思维中的“反思”定义为: 对自己的一种信仰或所偏好的某种知识形式, 从其所依存的基础上和可能得出的结论上, 进行积极的、持续的、仔细的审视。另一位美国批判性思维运动的开拓者Robert·Ennis则在1991年将这一思维形式精炼地表述为:
“为决定相信什么或做什么而进行的合理的、反省的思维”。Ennis的定义把批判性思维作为一种“思维活动”, 强调“个人判断”
及采取的相应的取舍(知识)的“决策”。一个较新的观点来自于把批判性思维定义为一种调查研究的说法,认为其目的是探究一种情景、现象、问题或假设, 以达到整合所有有效信息并能够有说服力地证明结论或假设。与其他众多从纯思维角度所给的定义不同,Kurfiss把批判性思维比作一种调查研究活动, 使批判性思维过程更加易于理解的同时强调了“ 信息整合的效度”和“说服力”两条标准,而“批判”活动的基础是“有效信息”或“知识”,因此,在大学生日常知识学习过程中注重批判性思维技术训练并有意识地鼓励其批判性思维精神的培养, 能逐步提高其整体的批判性思维能力和创新能力。
1990年,在美国和加拿大教育界发表的《批判性思维:一份专家一致同意的关于教育评估的目标和指示的声明》将批判性思维认知能力的核心分解分为: 阐述、分析、评估、推论、解释和元认知六个方面, 认为其中的“元认知”是一种“自我的、有意识地监控认知行为, 以及这些认知行为中所运用的认知手段和所引起的结果, 特别是以一种质疑、反省或校正推论或结果的态度来分析、评价自己的推论性判断”。
批判性思维还可被细分为认知技能(cognitive skills)和情感意向(affectivedispositions),也即我们平常所说的批判性思维技能和批判性思维精神。前者可以说是批判性思维具体的运作和构成机制,偏重于指导学习中的实际操作; 而后者则指思维者个性气质中的一种趋向性, 起到主观引导作用。
“世界高等教育会议”在1998年发表的《面向21世纪高等教育宣言:观念与行动》的第一项议题中指出教育的使命是: 培养批评性和独立的态度。这一态度已经被确立成为当今许多西方国家高等教育的主要目标。而我国的“批判性思维”教育和研究起步较晚,“只在近三、四年,才有对国外批判性思维教育的零星介绍出现”。
大学英语教学中的语言文化类选修课与批判性思维的培养可谓是双向互动关系。一方面,带有批判性思维技能训练的语言文化类选修课, 能有效地帮助学生建立其批判性思维精神;另一方面,在主动的逐步增强的“批判性思维精神”驱使下, 学生又能够在学习中不断强化其批判性思维技能,进而提高其自主学习能力、人文素养以及思辨能力。
下面我们将遵循《课程要求》指出的新时期大学英语教学改革的方向, 结合批判性思维能力的培养目标, 对大学英语中语言文化类选修课的课程设计作一些建设性的讨论。
《课程要求》明确指出, 教学模式改革成功的一个重要标志就是学生个性化学习方法的形成和学生自主学习能力的发展。
思维过程具有“ 内隐性”和“ 自动化”的特点, 人们在进行思维时往往并未意识到自己是如何思考的或自己的思考方式具有何种趋向性。在英语提高阶段的选修课教学中, 教师应正确理解自己在文化选修课中的“ 辅助者”角色, 力求放弃课堂中的“ 主角”地位,而仅应为学生规划出学习范围和方向,起到穿针引线的作用,利用文化类课程的知识性、趣味性、引起学生的共鸣或好奇, 为学生搭建一个通过自主收索并消化信息的平台。同时,教师应起到科学调动学生自己“计划、选择、组织和评价学习内容的”的主动性,使其充分意识到自己的思维能动力, 树立起培养自己批判性思维精神的自信心。
教学模式主要包括两个方面:第一,教学内容的设计;第二,教学活动的设计。《要求》中建议学生充分利用校园网及互联网等网络资源进行学习。教师应该利用合理的教学内容和教学活动的设计, 对学生的批判性思维技能进行科学训练。当今社会网络咨询飞速发展,学生可以非常容易地通过网络收索到丰富但略嫌庞杂的相关知识。选修课教师可为学生精心设计教学内容和讨论话题; 建议合理的关键词或关键话题的网上搜索; 或是推荐一些优秀的原版英文网站或链接地址, 并且据此安排相关课堂活动任务,如:要求学生将收集到的原版英文资料打印出来进行小组讨论或者将其浓缩为简单易懂的PPT文件。在这些过程中,学生会自然而然地摸索Kurfiss所说的“调查研究”技能, 对所搜集的资料进行“选择”和“有效整合”。为了在课堂中参与小组讨论或进行上台讲解, 学生必须要对应该“做什么和相信什么”作出分析、解释、推论、说明或自我校对, 以使自己的发言能具有更强的“说服力”, 从而引导学生逐步提高其跨文化交际能力。
《课程要求》倡议教师采用“ 过程性评估”,其中排列在前两位的“学生自我评估”
和“学生相互间的评估”同样是对学生批判性思维的最有效训练和考验。针对这一倡议,教师可以根据“元认知”理论,调动学生的“自我监控”和“反思”等认知手段, 积极地通过“质疑、反省或校正推论或结果的态度”来分析评价自己和其他同学的观点、论述方式、和语言表达等综合表现。具体的做法可以是: 设计出一套“全面、客观、科学、准确”但又可操作性较强的评估标准,让学生充分了解应该从那些方面去评价自己和同学,通过反复的相互比较,学生逐渐熟悉了导致“课堂成功表现”的构成因素, 因而更容易发现自己学习策略中的不足, 并及时做出“取舍”和改进。
在开展语言文化类选修课时, 大学英语教师应有意识地将语言学习自然而有效地融合到其他文化知识体系的学习过程中, 通过主观情绪的调动帮助学生提升其批判性思维精神; 通过客观教学手段和评价手段的设计强化训练其批判性思维技能。最终达到使学生能主动地、有意识地调 动其批判性思维技能, 逐步建立起自己个性化的学习策略, 稳步提高其英语综合运用能力的同时有效地拓展知识面, 提升跨文化交际能力并最终建立其稳定的批判性思维体系。
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