为您找到与语言文化与交际英语论文相关的共200个结果:
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汉语字母词的出现丰富了现代汉语语言词汇系统,便于中西跨文化交际,但另一方面字母词的出现也是语言文化帝国主义在现代汉语中的表现,它破坏了现代汉语文字系统的纯洁性。本文探讨现代汉语字母词现象,并指出现代汉语字母词现象出现的必然性。
在跨文化交际的过渡阶段,跨文化与跨语言交际已经发展到一定的程度,为了克服在跨文化交际起步阶段用汉字单纯音译外来语词的缺陷,人们用汉字音意兼译外来语词。如把Beatles译成“披头士”会让人联想起乐手们演奏乐曲时长发飘散的潇洒形象;把coca-cola译成“可口可乐”会让人向往这种饮料的美昧,可口可乐之所以行销中国,其原因也在于此;把TOEFL译成“托福”,把意欲留学美国的中国学子的祈福心态描绘得活灵活现。其它经典的音意兼译佳作还有shampoo(香波),Benz(奔驰),Canon(佳能),talking show(脱口秀),Sumicidin(速灭杀丁),Broadway(百老汇)等等。
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文化会影响人们对外界事物的看法和认识,不同的国家存在不同的文化,因此在思维模式方面必然存在差异,这一点在东西文化之间表现得尤为明显。造成中西文化冲突现象的原因多种多样,究其根本,就是因为中西双方有着不同的文化、不同的历史背景,必然带来人们思想、行为等多方面的差异,甚至是冲突,
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:跨文化交际与中西文化冲突相关论文。仅供大家参考!
跨文化交际与中西文化冲突全文如下:
【摘要】在中西跨文化交际中,文化冲突的事例屡见不鲜,严重影响了交往的顺利进行,因此我们很有必要找出其深层次的原因,并采取一定的措施来培养跨文化交际的能力,避免文化冲突。
【关键词】跨文化交际、文化差异、文化冲突
随着中国对外开放程度的逐渐深入,西方社会的人和事物越来越多地走进了我们的视野,在这种情况下,跨国域、跨民族、跨文化的经济和社会交往将会与日俱增,这就为我们提供了许多与西方人接触和交往的机会,这对于加深我们的西方社会的理解是一件好事,但这并不是一件简单的事情,因为我们所面对的是来自陌生的文化和国家,思维方式、生活习惯和行为方式与我们迥然不同的人,在与之交往的过程中不可避免的会出现文化冲突的现象。
在中西跨文化交际中会出现的文化冲突有很多种,在这里我们不可能一一叙述,只能列出比较常见的几种。
1.1隐私方面的冲突
中国人的隐私观念比较薄弱,认为个人要归属于集体,在一起讲究团结友爱,互相关心,故而中国人往往很愿意了解别人的酸甜苦辣,对方也愿意坦诚相告。而西方人则非常注重个人隐私,讲究个人空间,不愿意向别人过多提及自己的事情,更不愿意让别人干预。因此在隐私问题上中西双方经常发生冲突,例如:中国人第一次见面往往会询问对方的年龄,婚姻状况,儿女,职业,甚至收入,在中国人的眼里这是一种礼貌,但在西方人眼里则认为这些问题侵犯了他们的隐私。
1.2时间观方面的冲突
西方人的时间观和金钱观是联系在一起的,时间就是金钱的观念根深蒂固,所以它们非常珍惜时间,在生活中往往对时间都做了精心的安排和计划,并养成了按时赴约的好习惯。在西方,要拜访某人,必须事先通知或约定,并说明拜访的目的、时间和地点,经商定后方可进行。而中国人则属于多向时间习惯的国家,在时间的使用上具有很大的随意性,一般不会像西方人那样严格的按照计划进行,西方人对此往往感到不适应。
1.3客套语方面的冲突
中国人注重谦虚,在与人交际时,讲求“卑己尊人”,把这看作一种美德,这是一种富有中国文化特色的礼貌现象。在别人赞扬我们时,我们往往会自贬一番,以表谦虚有礼。西方国家却没有这样的文化习惯,当他们受到赞扬时,总会很高兴地说一声“Thank you”表示接受。由于中西文化差异,我们认为西方人过于自信,毫不谦虚;而当西方人听到中国人这样否定别人对自己的赞扬或者听到他们自己否定自己的成就,甚至把自己贬得一文不值时,会感到非常惊讶,认为中国人不诚实。
1.4餐饮习俗方面的冲突
中华民族素有热情好客的优良传统。在交际场合和酒席上,热情的中国人常常互相敬烟敬酒。中国人宴客,即使美味佳肴摆满一桌,主人也总习惯讲几句“多多包涵”等客套话。主人有时会用筷子往客人的碗里夹菜,用各种办法劝客人多吃菜、多喝酒。而在西方国家,人们讲求尊重个人权益和个人隐私,所以他们不会做强人所难的事。吃饭的时候,绝不会硬往你碗里夹菜,自己想吃什么就吃什么,他们也不会用各种办法劝客人喝酒,不会非要你喝醉了为止。
造成中西文化冲突现象的原因多种多样,究其根本,就是因为中西双方有着不同的文化、不同的历史背景,必然带来人们思想、行为等多方面的差异,甚至是冲突,下面我们就来具体看一下有哪些主要的原因。
2.1思维模式存在差异
文化会影响人们对外界事物的看法和认识,不同的国家存在不同的文化,因此在思维模式方面必然存在差异,这一点在东西文化之间表现得尤为明显。西方文化的思维模式注重逻辑和分析,而东方文化的思维模式则表现出直觉整体性,这一点也是中国传统文化思维的特征。由于这种传统文化的影响,中国人往往特别重视直觉,注重认识过程中的经验和感觉,在交往中也往往以这种经验和感觉去“以己度人”。与西方人的思维模式相比,中国人的这种思维模式具有明显的笼统性和模糊性,久而久之,会形成一种思维定势,可以解释为识别和简化对外界事物的分类感知过程。从本质上说,思维定势往往忽视个体事物的差别,夸大与另外某一社会群体相关的认知态度,常常带有感情色彩,并伴有固定的信条。在所有的定势中,有些定势是正确的,而有些则是错误的,会直接影响跨文化交际,造成交际失误。
2.2行为规范各不相同
行为规范的具体含义就是指被社会所共同接受的道德标准和行为准则,简单的说,就是告诉人们该做什么和不该做什么的一种规范。不同文化背景的人们在交际时,经常出现的一个现象就是套用自身所在社会的行为规范来判定对方行为的合理性,由于双方的行为规范存在差异,常常会产生误解、不快甚至更坏的结果。比如说中国人轻拍小孩子的头部表示一种友好,而在西方国家,这是一种极不尊重小孩子的做法,父母会对此非常愤怒。所以说在跨文化交际中是否能够正确地识别和运用行为规范是保证跨文化交际顺利进行的重要因素。要保障跨文化交际的顺利进行,就必须理解对方的行为规范,尤其是什么行为是被禁止的,最好的办法就是遵循入乡随俗的原则。
2.3价值取向不同
人们的交际能力是在社会化的过程中产生的,必然与价值观念联系在一起。每一种文化都有自己特有的价值体系,这套体系能够帮助人们区分美与丑、善良与邪恶,这就是人们的处世哲学、道德标准和行为规范。但是它不能脱离具体的文化而存在,每一种文化的判断标准是不同的,这种文化认为是好的,另一种文化可能认为不好,但是它们在自己的文化体系内都有其存在的合理性,绝不可以理解为一种价值标准先进,而另一种价值标准落后。以中西文化为例,在中国文化中,人们推崇谦虚知礼,追求随遇而安,不喜欢争强好胜,同时社会风气也往往封杀过于突出的个人,正所谓“行高于众,人必非之”。在中国文化中,集体取向占据主导地位,追求个人发展被视为是一种严重的个人主义,必然会受到谴责。而西方文化则非常崇尚个人主义,“随遇而安”被看作是缺乏进取精神的表现,是懒惰、无能的同义语,为社会和个人所不取。人本位的思想根植于他们心中,人们崇尚独立思考,独立判断,依靠自己的能力去实现个人利益,并且认为个人利益至高无上。
2.4语用迁移造成影响
人们对遇到的现象、事物和行为的评价和解释是建立在本身文化的基础之上的,在跨文化交际中也同样如此,因此往往会造成交际的障碍,其根源就在于忽略了语用的迁移。文化不同语言的使用规则就会不同,一种文化的标准规范只能在自身中按其特定条件加以解释,而不能以此为规范来描述另一种文化,否则必然会导致跨文化交际的失败,其深层原因就在于人们缺乏对社会语言差异的敏感性,会无意识地进行语用迁移,而这种后果有时会很严重,甚至会招致巨大经济损失。我国的羊绒制品在国际上评价颇好,北方某厂曾出口一种“双羊”牌高档羊绒被,商标被译成英文Goats,结果销路特别不好,原因就在于在英语中goat这个词除了本意“山羊”外,还有“色鬼”之意。有了这样的英文商标,无论这种羊绒被的质量有多好,用起来多舒服,那些妙龄女子、家庭主妇也不会愿意把它铺上床的。
从以上的分析可以看出,在我们与西方的交往过程中,确实存在着很多文化方面的冲突,直接影响到了跨文化交往的效果,为了改变这一状况,我们极有必要在实际教学中培养学生的跨文化交际能力,具体措施如下:
3.1授课教师要转变观念
在我国目前的教学体系中,外语教学多半只在课堂上进行,教师起着绝对的主导作用。如果教师只把重点放在语法和词汇教学上,学生就不可能学会语言的实际运用,也无法获得跨文化交际的能力。因此,授课的教师必须要转变自己的观念,切实认识到文化冲突的危害性和培养学生跨文化交际能力的重要性。同时,教师还要加强学习,提高自身的综合文化素质,只有这样,才能全面把握英语文化知识教育的量与度,以及教学的具体步骤和方法,以达到预期的教学目的。
3.2改进现有的教学方法
一直以来,大学的英语教学侧重点都放在了语言知识的传授上,而忽略了跨文化交际能力的培养。为了改变这种情况,我们必须改进教学方法,在质和量两个方面对课堂教学中的文化教学加以控制,并充分利用现代化的教学手段(电影、投影仪、互联网等)来调动学生的学习积极性。此外还可以举办一些专题讲座,以满足学生的求知欲望,培养出具有较高跨文化交际能力的人才。但是值得注意的是,在改进教学方法时,一定要使新的内容与学生所学的语言知识紧密联系,并与语言交际实践紧密结合。
3.3重视非语言交际能力的培养
非语言交际也是一种重要的交际方式,指的是在特定的情景或语境中使用非语言行为交流和理解信息的过程,它们不是真正的语言单位,但在生活和交际中有时候却能表达出比语言更强烈的含义,一些特定的非语言行为往往代表着特定的含义,在跨文化交际中必须加以重视。中西文化背景下的非语言文化内涵差异非常大。例如,中国人信奉“沉默是金”,认为沉默里含有丰富的信息,甚至“此时无声胜有声”,而英语国家的人对此颇感不舒服。西方人交谈时,听者一般都会长时间注视对方的眼神,以示听者的认真和对说话者的尊重,但是在中国人看来,这是一种不礼貌的行为,因为中国人不习惯于对方长时间地盯着自己看。
3.4引导学生广泛接触西方文化材料
在大学里,英语教学的课时非常有限,但学生在课余有充分的可支配时间,因此不能仅仅依靠教师在课堂上的教学来培养跨文化交际能力,教师要引导学生利用课外时间广泛阅读西方英语文学作品、报刊杂志和时事评论等材料,从中吸取文化知识,增加文化素养,拓宽西方文化视野,提高跨文化交际能力。另外,有外教的学校还应充分发挥外教在西方文化传播中的作用,他们是活的文化教材,让学生直接与外教交流,听外教做报告或讲课,其言传身教会对学生起到一种潜移默化的作用。
[1]许果、梅林,文化差异与跨文化交际能力的培养。《重庆大学学报》(社科版),2002年第8卷第6期,121-123
[2]顾江禾,东西方文化对比小议。《太原重型机械学院学报》,2001年第22卷第4期,279-282
[3]华厚坤,试论跨文化语境下的大学英语教学。《黑龙江高教研究》,2003年第6期,153-154
[4]吴锋针,中西习俗文化“冲突”。《绥化师专学报》,2003年第1期,90-92
[5]程晓莉,英语跨文化交际教学的思考。《安徽农业大学学报》(社会科学版),2003年第5期,105-107
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Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
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it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
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新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
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文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
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令西方人不能理解的是,中国烹调不仅不追求精确的规范化,反而推崇随意性。翻开中国的菜谱,常常发现原料的准备量、调料的添加量都是模糊的概念。“一汤匙”、“半碗”、“少许”比比皆是,可究竟汤匙、碗有多大,“少许”是多少,谁也没有具体的标准。今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是:跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异修改论文,具体内容如下;希望能够帮助到大家!
【摘要】不同的民族和国家存在着各具特色的饮食文化,具有浓郁的民族性和多样性的特点。饮食文化的差异也是跨文化交际中 影响 交际结果的因素之一。了解中西方饮食文化的差异与不同,理解其深刻的文化内涵,探究其文化底蕴,促成了文化的进一步交流、互补与兼容。
【关键词】跨文化交际;饮食文化;文化差异
【论文正文】
跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异
随着国际交往的不断深入,来自不同国家或文化背景的人们进行的交流不断增多,他们之间的这种交流被称之为跨文化交际。跨文化交际逐渐成为人们生活中不可或缺的 内容 。由于地区差异,不同的民族、国家形成了不同的文化。不同文化背景的人们的行为方式或习惯不尽相同,有其各自的 社会 规约或习惯,体现在 政治 、 经济 、 教育 、宗教、 法律 、文化 艺术 等各个方面。不同文化背景的人进行交际时,影响信息传达效果的那些语言和非语言因素构成了跨文化交际中的交际文化。外语 学习 者如果对所学目的语国家的语言与非语言交际行为及其功能缺乏了解,就会出现不恰当的言行,从而产生交际障碍,就很难进行有效的跨文化交际,以致造成交际失误。
饮食文化也是跨文化交际中非语言文化重要组成部分之一。了解中西方饮食文化中的差异和其渊源,对于外语学习者来讲,不仅能增加对所学语言文化的理解,更能提高跨文化交际的成功率,避免因为不恰当的方式或行为造成误解和交际障碍。这里从关注重点、烹调准则和文化特征等三个方面阐述中西方饮食文化的差异,以增进了解,促进交流。
一、“营养”和“美味”的关注重点不同
(一)理性的西方人更多关注的是营养与生存
中西饮食文化最大的差异是关注的重点不同,即“营养”和“美味”两者孰轻孰重的 问题 。在西方国家,饮食大多仅仅作为一种生存的必要手段和交际方式。西方饮食是一种理性观念,不论食物的色、香、味、形如何,营养一定要得到保证。林语堂先生说,英美人仅以“吃”为对一个生物的机器注入燃料,只要他们吃了以后能保持身体的结实,足以抵御病菌的感染,其他皆在不足道中。即便口味千篇一律,甚至比起 中国 的美味佳肴来,简直单调得如同嚼蜡,但理智告诉他们:一定要吃下去,因为有营养。换句话说,西方人特别讲求和关心的是食物的营养成分是否搭配合宜,以及这些营养成分能否被充分吸收,有无其他副作用。而菜肴的色、香、味,则是次一等的要求。即使是在饮食文化与我们比较相似的法国,涉及营养问题,双方便拉开了距离。法国烹调虽然也追求美味,但同时还坚持“营养”这一大前提,一味舍营养而求美味的做法是他们不赞成的。
不可否认,西方烹调讲究营养而忽视味道,至少他们是不以味觉享受为首要目的。冰镇的开胃冷酒还要再加冰块,饮后舌表面遍布的味觉神经便大大丧失品味的灵敏度,渐至不能辨味;那带血的牛排与大白鱼、大白肉,白水煮豆子、煮土豆,虽有“味”而不入“味”;他们拒绝使用味精,认为其是既不营养又有副作用化学产品;生吃的蔬菜,不仅包括西红柿、黄瓜、生菜,甚至是洋白菜、洋葱、西兰花。因而他们的“色拉”有如一盘饲料,使我们难以下咽。虽然现在的中国人也讲究营养保健,也知道蔬菜爆炒加热后会丢失一部分维生素,生吃则避免丢失,可还是宁愿选择前者,因为习惯使然,更是因为味道确实好多了。
(二)感性的中国人追求的是美味和享受
在中国,民间有句俗话:“民以食为天,食以味为先”,味道是烹调的最高准则。虽然人们在赞誉美食时,总爱说“色香味俱佳”,那是根据我们感受色香味的感觉器官“眼、鼻、口”的上下排列顺序。但人们内心对于“色、香、味”,从来都是“味”字当先的。中国人通常重视味道,不太想到营养,这也反映在日常言谈之中,如家庭宴客,主菜端上台面时,主人常自谦地说:“菜烧得不好,不一定合您的口味,就凑合着吃吧。他绝不会说:“菜的营养价值不高,热量不够。”在中国人的眼里,“吃”远不单纯是为了饱,也不是为了营养,有时吃饱了,还要吃,这是因为受不了“美味”的诱惑而尽情进行味觉享受。但在西方的理性饮食观看来,这种超负荷的饮食不仅造成浪费,而且危害人体。尽管中国人讲究食疗、食补、食养,重视以饮食来养生滋补,但我们的烹调却以追求美味为第一要求,致使许多营养成分损失破坏,因此营养问题也许是中国饮食的最大弱点。
二、“规范”与“随意”的烹调准则不同
(一)西方烹调遵循的是规范与 科学
中西烹饪中处处显示的“规范”与“随意”也体现了其饮食文化的不同。西方人强调科学与营养,因此烹调的全过程都严格按照科学规范行事。菜谱的使用就是一个极好的证明。西方菜谱中计量都以“克” 计算 ,表面上看,菜谱似乎是科学的,西方人总是拿着菜谱去买菜,制作菜肴,但相比起来,还是一个非常机械的东西,在复杂的具体情况面前往往是无能为力的。而这种一致性导致了西餐的一个弊端——缺乏特色。当人们身处异地想品尝当地美食时,肯定是不会有人会选择肯德基或麦当劳之类食品的。因为肯德基老头的炸鸡不仅需要按照配方配料,就连油的温度,炸鸡的时间,也都要严格依规范行事,所以全世界的肯德基味道都是一样的。另外,规范化的烹调甚至要求配料的准备、调料的添加精确到克,烹调时间精确到秒。深受卡尔文教派影响的荷兰人连自己都说过“如果说法国人是为吃而活着,我们荷兰人则是为活着而吃”,这也就不难理解 “荷兰人家的厨房备有天平、液体量杯、定时器、刻度锅,调料架上排着整齐大小划一的几十种调味料瓶,就像个化学试验室。”可是当烹饪变成一个精确而艰巨的实验时,哪里还有什么乐趣可言呢?由于西方菜肴制作的规范化,使得烹调成为一种机械性的工作,毫无创造性。牛排、炸鸡、色拉,翻来覆去总是那么几个花样,因而厨师的工作就成为一种极其单调的机械性工作,他有如自动化装配线上的一名工人,甚至可由一机器人来代行其职。
(二)中国烹调推崇的是随意与特色
令西方人不能理解的是,中国烹调不仅不追求精确的规范化,反而推崇随意性。翻开中国的菜谱,常常发现原料的准备量、调料的添加量都是模糊的概念。“一汤匙”、“半碗”、“少许”比比皆是,可究竟汤匙、碗有多大,“少许”是多少,谁也没有具体的标准。而且中国烹调中,不仅讲究各大菜系要有各自的风味与特色,即使是同一菜系的同一个菜,所用的配菜与各种调料的匹配,也会依厨师的个人爱好特点有变化。有时候同一厨师做同一个菜,可能也会根据不同季节、不同场合,用餐人的不同身份、口味、要求,加以调整。甚至还会因厨师自己临场情绪的变化即兴的发挥。同样是一道“麻婆豆腐”,为四川客人烹制和为苏州客人烹制,所用的调料肯定是不同的。又比如红烧鱼,冬天的颜色宜深些,口味宜重些,夏天则色和味均应清淡些;对于江浙一带的人来说,红烧鱼的调味中可加糖,如对川湘顾客,则应多放辣。可见如果离开了随意性,变化多端的中国菜肴,就会失去其独特魅力。而在西方,一道菜在不同的地区不同的季节面对不同的食者,都是同一味道,毫无变化。即使是高档的宴席,也不过是餐具更考究,布置更华贵而已,菜仍旧一个样。
同时对食品加工的随意性,无限扩大了 中国 菜谱。原料的多样,刀工的多样,调料的多样,烹调 方法 的多样,交叉组合后使得一种原料便可做成数种以至十数种、数十种菜肴。新疆的“全羊席”,广东的“全鱼席”,北京的“全鸭席”就是最好的证明。最常用的原料鸡,到了粤菜大厨师手中,便做出数十道以至上百道菜式。许多西方人视为弃物的东西,在中国都是极好的原料,外国厨师无法处理的东西,一到中国厨师手里,就可以化腐朽为神奇,比如著名菜肴炒“杂烩”,更是把这种随意性发挥到极致,凡是能吃者皆能入菜。也就是这样的随意性创造出了中国烹饪中琳琅满目的菜式。
三、“分别”与“和合”的文化特征不同
(一)崇尚自由的西方人重分别与个性
台湾 国学大师钱穆先生在《 现代 中国学术论衡》一书的序言中说:“文化异,斯学术亦异。中国重和合,西方重分别。”中西文化的差异也 影响 了各自的饮食文化。在中西饮食文化之中也明显体现出这种“和合”与“分别”的文化特征。西菜中除少数汤菜,如俄式红菜汤(罗宋汤),是把多种荤素原料集中在一锅里熬制而成之外,正菜中各种原料互不相干,鱼就是鱼,鸡就是鸡,牛排就是牛排,纵然有搭配,那也是在盘中进行的。如,“法式羊排”,一边靠着羊排放土豆泥,另一边配煮青豆,加两片番茄、三片生菜即可。色彩上对比鲜明,但在滋味上各种原料互不调和,各是各的味,泾渭分明。所谓“土豆烧牛肉”,也不过是烧好的牛肉加煮熟的土豆,绝非把土豆牛肉一锅煮。即使是调味的作料,如番茄酱、芥末糊、柠檬汁、辣酱油,也都是现吃现加。即使有所搭配,也是像“1+1=2”一样简单明了。以上种种都体现了“西方重分别”的 社会 文化。
这种重分别的社会文化同样体现在用餐方式上。自由的西方人奉行的是分餐制。首先是各点各的菜,想吃什么点什么,这表现了西方人对个性、对自我的尊重。及至上菜后,人各一盘各吃各的,各自随意添加调料,一道菜吃完后再吃第二道菜,前后两道菜绝不混吃。西方流行的自助餐形式更是各吃各的,互不相扰,缺少中国人聊欢共乐的情调。
(二)向往和谐的中国人重和合与整体
中国人一向以“和”与“合”为最美妙的境界, 音乐 上讲究“和乐”、“唱和”,医学上主张“身和”、“气和”,希望国家 政治 实现“政通人和”。而我们称夫妇成婚为“合卺”,称美好的婚姻为“天作之合”;当我们表示崇敬之心时,更以双手“合十”为礼,而当一切美好的事物凑集在一起时,我们将其称誉为“珠联璧合”。而这种“和合”的思想体现在烹饪上就反映为“五味调和”。就是说,烹制食物时需要在保留原料 自然 之味的基础上进行“五味调和”,要用阴阳五行的基本 规律 指导这一调和,调和既要合乎时序,又要注意时令,才能达到“美味可口”的烹调目标。所以中国菜几乎每个菜都要用两种以上的原料和多种调料来调和烹制。即便是家常菜,一般也是荤素搭配来调和烹制的,如韭黄炒肉丝、菠萝咕噜肉、番茄炒蛋、排骨冬瓜汤……而如果换做西厨烹制,端上桌的恐怕是奶汁肉丝外加白水煮韭黄,或炸猪排佐以菠萝色拉,如此的中菜西做,让人哭笑不得。
中国人把做菜称之为“烹调”,这意味着我们将烹与调合为一体,要调和出一种美好的滋味。这一讲究的就是分寸,就是整体的配合。它包含了中国 哲学 丰富的辩证法思想,一切以菜的味的美好、谐调为度,度以内的千变万化就决定了中国菜的丰富和富于变化,中国饮食之所以有其独特的魅力,关键就在于它的味。而美味的产生,在于调和,要使食物的本味,加热以后的熟味,加上配料和辅料的味以及调料的调和之味,交织融合协调在一起,使之互相补充,互助渗透,水乳交融,你中有我,我中有你。因此中国人烹调不是“1+1=2”那么简单,而是应该等于“3”甚至更多。
在中国,任何一个宴席,不论什么目的都只会有一种形式就是聚餐,大家团团围坐合吃一桌菜,冷拼热炒沙锅火锅摆满桌面,客人东吃一筷西吃一勺,几道菜同时下肚。筵席要用圆桌,这就从形式上造成了一种团结、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心,供一桌人欣赏、品尝。人们相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝酒劝菜,体现了相互尊重、礼让的美德,同时也借此交流感情。虽然从卫生的角度看,这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处,但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态。这些都体现了“分别”与“和合”的中西文化的根本差异。
综上,中西饮食在诸多方面存在着各式各样的差异,当然,这些差异都具有相对性,几千年来的东西方文化的交流也促成中西方的饮食文化的不断融合。全球化态势下的跨文化交际使得多样的饮食文化不断的互补与兼容。今天,享受东西方各具特色的饮食已成为当代人日常生活中司空见惯的事情。我们在大街上随处可见法式大餐、麦当劳、肯德基等西方的舶来饮食,而中国菜馆也开遍了全世界。饮食文化的交流正存在于我们的日常生活中,并不断充当全球 经济 文化整合过程中,不同文化之间的“传递带”。它已经成为了一种日益增强的文化影响力,正发挥着比其他任何全球化单一力量大得多的作用,也在悄悄地改变着全世界。饮食文化的交流,需要不同文化之间的相互理解和欣赏,属于跨文化交际范畴,是一种非语言行为。 研究 跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异将使人们增进相互间的了解,享受不同的饮食带来的不同感受,增进文化间的交流、互补与融合。
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身势语Body Language是一个民族文化的组成部分,在当今跨文化交际越来越频繁的世界里,了解其他国家的无声语言有助于促进交流,避免误解和尴尬。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:浅谈非语言交际中的身势语相关论文。仅供大家参考!
浅谈非语言交际中的身势语全文如下:
“身势语”同语言一样,都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中,身势语的意义并不完全相同。各民族有不同的非语言交际方式.例如:不同的民族在谈话时,对双方保持多大距离才合适有不同的看法;谈话双方身体接触的次数多少因文化不同而各异;在目光接触这一方面也有许多规定:看不看对方,什么时候看,看多久,什么人可以看,什么人不可以看;在某些场合下,在中国和讲英语的国家无论微笑还是大笑,通常表示友好﹑赞同﹑满意﹑高兴﹑愉快,但是在某些场合,中国人的笑会引起西方人的反感;打手势时动作稍有不同,就会与原来的意图有所区别,对某种手势理解错了,也会引起意外的反应等等。因此,要用外语进行有效的交际,在说某种语言时就得了解说话人的手势,动作,举止等所表示的意思。而有些权威人士认为两者相互依存。在大多数情况下这是对的。在某些情况下,人体动作与所说的话不一致,口头说的与身势语表达的意思不一样。这时要借助其他信息或从整个情况中猜测说话人的意思,从某种意义上说,一切身势语都要放在一定的情景下去理解;忽视了整个情景就会发生误解。而通过中美身势语对比研究表明,两者有相似的地方,也有差异的地方,说明了解另一种语言中身势语的重要性。可见,真正掌握两种语言的人在换用另一种语言说话时也要换用另一种身势语。这样才能达到更好的交际效果。
关键词: 非语言交际 身势语 不同文化 不同方式
“Body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture. But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures; one could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at; smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment, and, this is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries, however, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on.
So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading. A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities and diversities of body language. It shows the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better.
Key words:nonverbal communication body language different culture different ways
1. Introduction …… 1
2. The necessity and importance of learning body language on nonverbal communication …… 2
3. The concrete types and application of the body language …… 3
3.1 Types of body language …… 3
3.1.1 Distance between people conversing …… 3
3.1.2 Physical contact …… 3
3.1.3 Eye contact …… 4
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter …… 6
3.1.5 Gestures …… 6
3.2 Application of the body language …… 6
3.2.1 Greetings …… 6
3.2.2 Signs of affection …… 8
3.2.3 Physical contact in life …… 8
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language …… 9
4. Conclusion …… 12
When a Chinese converses with a Canadian or American friend of the opposite sex, would it be indecent to be looking at the other person?
If two young friends of the same sex walk with their arms around each other’s shoulders or hold hands, would this be regarded by English-speaking people as proper?
Does nodding the head mean “yes”, and shaking the head mean “no” in all cultures?
There are not questions about language, but about body language, about nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication, composed of pictures, dresses, eye contact, spatial signals, gestures and so on, is as important as verbal communication.
People communicate in many different ways. One of the most important ways, of course, is through language. Moreover, when language is written it can be completely isolated from the context in which it occurs; it can be treated as if it were an independent and self-contained process.
Like all animals, people communicate by their actions as well as by the noises they make. It is a sort of biological anomaly of man—something like the giraffe’s neck, or the pelican’s beak—that our vocal noises have so for outgrown in importance and frequency all our other methods of signaling to one another. Language is obviously essential for human beings, but it is not the whole story of human communication. Not by a long shot.
The study of nonverbal communication should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situation body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what nonverbal communication communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a case, all nonverbal communication should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
Although we may not realize it, when we converse with others we communicate by much more than words. By our expressions, gestures and other body movements we send messages to these around us a smile and an outstretched hand show welcome. A form is a sign of displeasure. Nodding one’s head means agreement—“Yes”. Waving an outstretched hand with open palm is the gesture for “goodbye”. Leaning back in one’s seat and yawning at a talk or lecture shows lack of interest, boredom. These gestures have come to be accepted in general as having the meanings mentioned, at last to Chinese and Americans. There are parts of the way in which we communicate. This “body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture.
But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. The answers to the questions at the beginning of this chapter are all “no”. Even nodding the head may have a different meaning. To Nepalese, Sri Lankans, some Indians and some Eskimos it means not “yes”, but “no”. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research—Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn t have grown into a normal person". It s also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students characters.
3.1 Types of body language
3.1.1 Distance between people conversing
Watch an Arab and an Englishman in conversation. The Arab, showing friendliness in the manner of his people, will stand close to the Englishman. The latter will move back, watching to the Englishman. The Arab will then move forward to be closer; the Englishman will keep moving backward. By the end of the conversation, the two may be quite a distance from the conversation; the two may be quite a distance from the place where they were originally standing!
Here, distance between the two is the key factor. Different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing. According to studies, it seems there are four main distances in American social and business relations: intimate, personal, social, and public. Intimate distance ranges from direct physical contact to a distance of about 45 centimeters; this is for people’s most private relations and activities, between man and wife, for example. Personal distance is about 45—80 centimeters and is most common when friends, acquaintances and relatives converse. Social distance may be anywhere from about 1.30 meters to 3 meters; people who work together, or people doing business, as well as most of those in conversation at social gatherings tend to keep a distance is farther than any of the above and is generally for speakers in public and for teachers in classrooms.
The important thing to keep in mind is that most English-speaking people do not like people to be too close. Being too far apart, of course, may be awkward, but being too close makes people uncomfortable, unless there is a reason, such as showing affection or encouraging intimacy. But that is another matter.
3.1.2 Physical contact
The appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures. Figures from a study offer interesting insight into this matter. Pairs of individuals sitting and chatting in college shops in different places were observed for at last one hour each. The number of times that either one touched the other in that one hour was recorded, as follows: London, 0; Gainesville, Florida, 2; Pairs, 10; San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180. These figures speak for themselves. (Robinett, 1978)
In English-speaking countries, physical contact is generally avoided in conversation among ordinary friends or acquaintances. Merely touching someone may cause an unpleasant reaction. If one touches another person accidentally, he/she usually utters an apology such as “Sorry, Oh, I’m sorry, Excuse me.”
In China, a common complaint of western mothers is that Chinese often fondle their babies and very small children. Such behavior—whether touching, patting, hugging or kissing—can be quite embarrassing and awkward for the mothers. They know that no harm is meant, and that such gestures are merely signs of friendliness or affection, therefore they cannot openly show their displeasure. On the other hand, such actions in their own culture would be considered rude, intrusive and offensive and could arouse a strong dislike and even repugnance. So the mothers often stand by and watch in awkward silence, with mixed emotions, even when the fondling is by Chinese friends or acquaintances.
Going beyond the milder forms of touching, we shall take up the matter of hugging and embracing in public. This practice is fairly common among women in many countries. And in most of the more industrialized countries, it occurs frequently between husband and wife and close members of the family when meeting after a period of absence. Hugging and embracing among men, however, is a different matter. Among Arabs, Russians, French, and in several of the east European and Mediterranean countries, a warm hug and a kiss on the cheeks are a standard way of welcome. The same is true with some Latin Americans. In East Asia and in the English-speaking countries, though, the practice is seldom seen. A simple handshake is the custom. The story is told of what happened not long ago when the Japanese prime minister at the time, Mr. Fukuda, went to the U.S. on a state visit. When he stepped out of his car in front of the white house, he was greeted by the American president whit a “bear hug”. The prime minister was flabbergasted; others of the Japanese delegation were amazed; many Americans were surprised—it was so unusual and so unexpected. If the president had bowed low in Japanese fashion, it would have been less a surprise than to be greeted in a way so uncommon in either country!
The matter of physical contact between members of the same sex in English-speaking countries is a delicate one. Once past childhood, the holding of hands, or walking with an arm around another’s shoulder is not considered proper. The implication is homosexuality, and homosexuality generally arouses strong social disapproval in these countries.
3.1.3 Eye contact
Eye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at. These passages from the book Body Language (Fast, 1971) are amusing as well as informative:
“Tow strangers seated across from each other in a railway dining car have the option of introducing themselves and facing a meal of inconsequential and perhaps boring talk, or ignoring each other and desperately trying to avoid each other’s glance. A writer, describing such a situation in an essay, wrote, ‘they re-read the menu, they fool with the cutlery, they inspect their own fingernails as if seeing them for the first time. Comes the inevitable moment when glances meet, but they meet only to shoot instantly away and out the window for an intent view of the passing scene.’ ”
He points out that with people who are unfamiliar:
“We must void staring at them, and yet we must also avoid ignoring them… We look at them long enough to make it quite clear that we see them, and then we immediately look away.
There are different formulas for the exchange of glances depending on where the meeting takes place. If you pass someone in the street you may eye the oncoming person till you are about eight feet apart, then you must look away as you pass. Before the eight-foot distance is reached, each will signal in which direction he will pass. This is done with a brief look in that direction. Each will veer slightly, and the passing is done smoothly.”
In conversations with people who know each other, however, American custom demands that there should be eye contact. This applies to both the speaker and the listener. For either one not to look at the other person could imply a number of things, among which are fear, contempt, uneasiness, guilt, indifference, even in public speaking there should be plenty of eye contact. For a speaker to “burry his nose in his manuscript”, to read a speech instead of looking at and talking to hid audience, as some Chinese speakers are in the habit of doing, would be regarded as inconsiderate and disrespectful.
In conversation, a person shows that he is listening by looking at the other person’s eyes or face. If the other person is speaking at some length, the listener will occasionally make sounds like “Hmm”, “Ummm”, or nod his head to indicate his attention. If he agrees with the speaker, he may nod or smile. If he disagrees or has some reservations, he may slant his head to one side, raise an eyebrow, have a quizzical look.
Staring at people or holding a glance too long is considered improper in English-speaking countries. Even when the look may be one of appreciation—as of beauty—it may make people uneasy and embarrassed. Many Americans traveling abroad find the stares of the local people irritating. They become extremely self-conscious and often end up quite indignant about the “rudeness” of the people there, not realizing that the practice may be quite common in the country and may be nothing more than curiosity. Many English-speaking people in china have heard to complain about this.
“The language of the eyes”—one of the most common and ancient ways of exchanging feelings between boys and girls, men and women—is especially elaborate in the United States. Much study has been made of this: how people of the opposite sex show interest or indifference, encouragement or discouragement, approval or disapproval, affection or aversion. However, there are many differences even within the United States. Men use their eyes in different ways than women; there are differences of age, class or social status and geographical region; there are differences of ethnic background.
The story is told of a teenage Puerto Rican girl in a New York high school who was taken with a number of other girls to the principal for suspected smoking. Although there was no proof of any wrongdoing and although she had a good record, the principal decided she was guilty and suspended her. “There was something sly and suspicious about her,” he said in his report. “She just wouldn’t meet my eye. She wouldn’t look at me.”
When she was questioned by the principal it was true that she kept staring at the floor and refused to meet his eye. And in English there is a saying “Don’t trust anyone who won’t look at you in the eye.”
It so happened that one of the teachers had a Latin American background and knew about Puerto Rican culture. After talking with the girl’s parents, he went to the principal and explained that according to Puerto Rican culture, a good girl “does not meet the eyes of an adult.” Such behavior, he explained, “is a sign of respect and obedience.”
Fortunately, the principal accepted the explanation, admitted his mistake and the matter was settled properly. This difference in interpreting a simple eye gesture was a lesson in cultural diversity that he would not easily forget.
Rules about eye-language are numerous and complex. What has been mentioned gives a good idea of this; we shall not go further into detail.
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter
Smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. This is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries. However, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners. To illustrate, here is an excerpt from a letter by an American to a Chinese friend on nonverbal gestures that often cause cross-cultural misunderstanding:
“…One is the different meaning of laughter in China and American. When an American is parking his bicycle, for example, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. I have seen the same thing happen in the dining room, when a foreigner drops a plate quite by accident and feels badly and Chinese onlookers laugh, compounding his discomfort and causing anger and bad feeling.”
Such laughter, of course, is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he be a foreigner or a Chinese. It can convey a number of feelings: don’t take it so seriously; laugh it off, it’s nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc. However, for people unaware of this attitude, the reaction to such laughter is usually quite unpleasant and often generates ill feeling towards those laughing.
3.1.5 Gestures
Gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended. A wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions.
A well-known case is a gesture made by Winston Churchill, the doughty prime minister who led Britain through the Second World War. As he appeared before a large crowd, he was greeted with cheers and applause. The occasion was a momentous one and Churchill flashed the “V for victory” sign—with the forefinger and middle finger raised to form a “V”. Whether by mistake or ignorance, instead of facing the palm of his hand to the front, he made the “V” with the back of his hand towards the audience. Some in the crowd applauded; some gasped; some broke out in laughter. The prime minister’s gesture, as given, meant quite something else. Instead of “V for victory”, it meant something dirty; it was an obscene gesture!
3.2 Application of the body language
3.2.1 Greetings
Hoa has just arrived from Vietnam. Her cousin Phuong and some of his American friends are waiting at the airport to greet her. Hoa and Phuong are both excited about this meeting because they have been separated for seven years. As soon as Hoa enters the passenger terminal, Phuong introduces her to his friends Tom, Don, and Charles. Tom steps forward and hugs and kisses Hoa. She pushes him away and bursts into tears.
Among Chinese from Vietnam, if a boy hugs and kisses a girl in public, he insults her. Chinese culture in Vietnam is very strict about this, especially in the rural areas where Hoa grew up. She described her village: “After children are ten years old, boys and girls cannot play together. A boy and girl cannot date without their parents’ approval. A man and woman cannot hug or kiss if they’re not married.”
In Hoa’s village if anyone violated these rules, the villagers punished the girl by forcing her to kneel on the ground so they could spit at her and throw rocks at her. No wonder that Puong’s American friends frightened Hoa. She did not know what punishment for public hugging and kissing might be meted out to her in this country. She confused Tom, who by American standards was dong the right thing.
Eventually Hoa learned to be comfortable when greeted with hugs and kisses, accepting them as merely perfunctory acts.
Analogous to this situation is another in which Duane, a Chinese American employee, invited his non-Chinese boss, Mr. Keck, to a large family celebration. When Mr. Keck arrived, he shook hands with Duane and, when introduced to Duane’s grandmother, leaned over and kissed her on the cheek. This shocked the older woman, yet Mr. Keck was totally unaware that he had committed a social blunder. What he considered as a respectful act, grandmother considered disrespectful. Instead, Mr. Keck should have nodded to the older woman and offered her a verbal greeting.
◆ When establishing relations with Asians, avoid body contact. The safest form is to nod and give a verbal salutation. Follow their lead as the relationship changes.
Like customs everywhere, increased cross-cultural interaction brings about changes in habits; many Asian businesspeople have accommodated to the American handshaking tradition. On the other hand, in a situation where it seems as if bowing would still be the only polite move to make—especially to the Japanese—following these guidelines should make it easier.
◆ When bowing to people from Japan, hands should slide down toward the knees or remain at the side.
◆ Back and neck should be held in a rigid position, while eyes look downward.
◆ The person in the inferior position always bows longer and lower.
Those from India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh use the namaste for both greeting and farewells and as a sign of respect. They do this by holding their hands chest-high in a prayerlike position, then slightly nod the head; but they do not bow. American students of yoga who are taught by Asian teachers become familiar with this gesture that heralds the beginning of each session. Thais have a similar greeting, but they call it a wai.
While body contact is generally taboo in most Asian countries, elsewhere, body contact is expected; shying away from contact gives off negative signals.
◆ When greeting, people from Indian, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Thailand hold their hands together in front of their chins in a prayerlike position and nod their heads.
◆ When greeting, most Latinos expect body contact. Hugging and kissing on the check are acceptable for both the same sex and the opposite sex. The abrazo is commonplace—friends embrace and simultaneously pat each other on the back.
◆ When greeting, most middle easterners, especially Muslims, avoid body contact with the opposite sex, but men may embrace and kiss one anther. Women may do the same. When shaking hands, men should avoid pulling their hands away too quickly.
◆ When greeting most Americans, expect soma body contract. Women kiss once on each cheek and hug; men shake hands. Men may also hug and kiss women on the cheek if they are close friends.
◆ When greeting orthodox Jews, avoid body contact with the opposite sex.
3.2.2 Signs of affection
Sheree Bykofsky, an American writer, is thrilled when a cruise ship line purchases copies of her hew romantic travel guide, the best place to kiss in and around New York City. The cruise line plans to give the books as dinner favors during their special valentine’s cruise.
They invite Sheree on board to greet the passengers and autograph their copies. The Americans and Europeans delight in meeting the author and having her sign their books. However, when Sheree visits the tables of the Japanese passengers, most of them refuse to acknowledge her.
Japanese people do not approve of public body contact and, thus, have developed a complex system of bowing to express relationships. Touching a member of the opposite sex is particularly repugnant to their sensitivities; consequently, kissing in public is considered a disgraceful act.
The Japanese snubbed Sheree because the title of her book suggested behavior that did not conform to their standards of respect. They would not acknowledge her because, in their eyes, she promoted vulgarity.
Asians from countries other than Japan are equally disapproving when they see American men and women or two men to walk in public holding hands. However, when they practice this sign of friendship in the states, they are frequently mistaken for homosexuals. This shocks them.
Same-sex hand holding or walking arm-in-arm also occurs among Latinos, French, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, and middle easterners.
◆ Most Japanese people strongly disapprove of public expression of affection by males and females through kissing or any other form of body contact.
◆ Same-sex hand holding between Asians, middle-easterners, Latinos, or those from Mediterranean countries is a sign of friendship. Walking with arms on each other’s shoulders or with hands or arms linked also equates with camaraderie.
3.2.3 Physical contact
When Dorothy receives a wedding invitation to attend her Japanese neighbor’s wedding, she is thrilled. She has always admired the Yamashita family. She is very fond of lance, the about-to-be-married son, and feels extremely close to Grace, his mother. Dorothy feels honored to be included in the family festivities.
After the beautiful church ceremony, Dorothy stands in line to greet the bridal party. However, when Dorothy, a very affectionate person, steps forward to embrace the mother of the groom, Grace steps backward.
Dorothy feels rejected.
Even at such a joyous occasion as a wedding, Japanese customs about physical contact in public are not relaxed, even when taking place between the same sex. Truly, more formality is demonstrated in such situations. Consider the extreme reserve displayed at the 1993 royal wedding of crown prince Naruhito to Massako Owada. The physical acts of the royal couple consisted only of sipping sacred sake and making bows—no touching, no hugging, no kissing between the couple, certainly none by the wedding guests.
In Dorothy’s situation, even though she felt very close to Grace, she would have been more socially correct had she bowed her head slightly and then offered only verbal felicitations. In situations like these, it is best to observe the manner in which other wedding guests congratulate family members and then follow their example.
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language
A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities; for example: men don’t hug or embrace when meeting; a handshake is the most common gesture that goes with a greeting; waving a hand to say “goodbye” is the same; a frown shows displeasure, and the wrinkling of one’s nose is a sign of dislike, disgust or disapproval; nodding means “yes”, and shaking one’s head means “no”; pouting has the same meaning—displeasure, bad humor, resentment; a pat on the back of a man or boy indicates approval, praise, encouragement; gritting one’s teeth may express anger, fury, or determination.
The charts on the following pages provide examples of some of the difference:
Different Body Language, Same Meaning
Meaning Body Language in China Body Language in U.S.
“Come here” (beckoning someone to come) hand extended toward person,open palm, palm down, withall fingers crooked in a beckoning motion hand extended toward person,closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving backand forth (in china this samegesture would be consideredoffensive by many)
“Shame on you!” (semi-joking gesture) forefinger of one hand extended, tip touches one’s own face several times quickly; similar to scratching,but with the forefinger straight (usually with the remark “shame on you!”) forefinger of each hand extended, palms down in front of one’s body; one forefinger makes several brushing movements over the back of the other forefinger
‘I’m very full” (after a meal) one or both hands open, lightly patting one’s own stomach hand raised to throat, fingersextended, palm down (oftenwith the remark “I’m full upto here.”)
Same Body Language in Tow Cultures
but with Different Meaning
Meaning in China Body Language Meaning in U. S.
anger, irritation, frustration, remorse stamping one’s foot impatience
thank you; mutual positive feelings speaker or performerclapping at same timeaudience applauds applauding oneself;improper, immodest
Curiosity, sometimes surprise staring, gaping considered impolite;makes people embarrassed,self-conscious
disapproval, hissing “shah” calling for silence
seldom used;occasionally adults may pat head of children to show affection; patting the head of a teenager or adult would cause displeasure and can be insulting pat on head giving comfort, consolation or encouragement; also shows affection
Body Language and Meaning in One Culture;
No Equivalent in Other Culture
Body Language Meaning in U.S.
chewing one’s fingernails emotional stress, worried, doesn’t know what to do
thumbing one’s nose (one thumb on tip of own nose, fingers curled and moving together) defiance, contempt
wagging one’s finger (forefinger of one hand raised, other fingers clasped, the raised forefinger is wagged from side to side) warning not to do something; indicating that what the other person is doing is wrong
thumb down (arm crooked in front of body, closed fist, thumb extended down, one or several downward movements) rejection of a proposal, idea, person; nonverbal way of saying a strong “no”
winking (quick closing of one eye, generally with a smile and slight nod) may show several feelings; understanding, approval, encouragement, trying to get across a message, solidarity
touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger “It’s me” “I’m the one” (to westerners, the gesture would seem slightly funny)
using an open hand to cover one’s mouth while speaking (generally used by older people) to show confidentiality and secrecy; sometimes no meaning
using both hands (when one would be enough) in offering something to a visitor or another person respect
(when one’s tea cup is being refilled by the host or hostess) putting one or both hands upright, palm open, beside the cup “Thank you”
upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touch boy and girl in love; a good match
The examples in the charts are by no means complete, but are enough to illustrate the diversity of body language and to show the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language.
The study of body language should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
A word of general advice: when one communicates in a certain language, it is generally advisable to use the nonverbal behavior that goes with that particular language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better。
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge Xu Mingwu, Prof for his assistance in this study.
[1] Fast, Julius. 1971. Body Language . Pocket Books, N.Y.
[2] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan’en. 1997. The Practical Body Language. Hua Wen Press.
[3] Robinett, Betty W. 1978. Teaching English to speakers of other Language: Substance and Technique. McGraw-hill, N.Y.
[4] Samovar L. A. 1981. Understanding Intercultural Communication. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[5] Shen Minxian. 1999. The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School. Shanghai Education Vol. 12.
[6] Stern H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. London: Oxford university press.
[7] 毕继万 《跨文化非语言交际》,1999,外语教学与研究出版。
[8] 邓炎昌 《语言与文化》, 1989,外语教学与研究出版社。
[9] 赵艳萍 《文化与交际》, 1999,中国人民大学出版社。
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几十年来,我国的外语教学走过不少弯路。如今,随着社会的快速发展,交际文化涉及面非常广,从日常见面问候、称赞、致谢、道歉到了解掌握委婉语、禁忌语乃至体态语言等,所以在中学英语教学中,我们要在培养学生英语语言能力的同时,更多地让同学们识别和了解英汉两种交际文化的差异。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:交际能力与交际文化相关论文。仅供大家参考!
交际能力与交际文化全文如下:
我们进行语言教学的根本目的是什么?是学习、研究语言本身,还是掌握语言这个工具?大家知道,语言具有社会交际功能,是一种交际工具。我们外语教学的目的是要在打好扎实的语言基础知识,进行认真严格的听、说、读、写训练的基础上,培养听、说、读、写的交际能力。这一教学目的被明确写进了国家教委颁布的英语教学大纲。
几十年来,我国的外语教学走过不少弯路。解放以后很长一段时间,由于种种原因,我国的外语教学只是偏重语言形式(语音、语法、词义)的讲解传授,培养出不少的学生,他们精通语法规则,却只会认读,不会听说,不能真正具备交际能力。改革开放以后,国外先进的语言教学理论与教学手段得以引进,我国的外语教学水平提高得很快,尤其是明确提出了外语教学的主要目的是培养学生的交际能力,其意义是十分重大的。
那么什么是交际能力?它的内涵是什么呢?交际能力是一个语言学术语,它是针对语言能力而言的。语言能力通常是指语言规则内在化的体系,即语音、词汇、语法等语言规则体系;而交际能力的概念不仅包括语言能力,还包括语言运用,说通俗一点就是能否恰当地使用语言的能力。看来要完成某一门语言的交际能力的培养,就不可避免地要对使用这种语言的国家的文化进行了解与学习,因为语言与文化是密不可分的。
文化是一个涵义极广的概念。《辞海》里对文化是这样定义的:从广义上说,文化是指人类社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富与精神财富的总和。但为便于区分,人们习惯上将文化分为两类,把社会、政治、经济、文学、艺术、历史、哲学、科技成就等称为知识文化;把社会习俗、生活习惯、思维方式及行为准则等称为交际文化或常识文化。本文着重探讨的是交际文化。
当然,人类文化中有着许许多多共性的东西。但也不可否认,不同的民族、不同的文化之间也存在着差异,尤其是在交际文化方面,东西方之间存在着较大的差异,这给我们学习与正确使用英语带来一定的困难。有时对同一个词汇,对同一个称呼,对同一个手势,对同一句话,英美人的理解与中国人的理解就大不一样。所以我们的英语教学,几乎是从第一天起就开始接触东西方两种交际文化差异这个难题。
交际文化涉及面非常广,从日常见面问候、称赞、致谢、道歉到了解掌握委婉语、禁忌语乃至体态语言等,所以在中学英语教学中,我们要在培养学生英语语言能力的同时,更多地让同学们识别和了解英汉两种交际文化的差异。
中国人见到老师总是称呼:“老师,您早”;而像我们中学英语课堂上常用的“Good morning, Teach-er"就不是太正确,因为在英语里teacher只是一种职业,一般不用作称呼,应改为"Good morning, Sir"或"Good morning,Madame"。
“小张、小李”在汉语里是很亲切的称呼,而用“小米勒”称呼一位英国青年却是不礼貌的;用汉语称呼“张老、李老、老人家”,中国老人听得心里美滋滋的,很自然地接受年轻人对他们的尊敬和照顾。可是英美老人对此却不习惯。
几年前一个美国退休教师讲学团来我系讲学十天,我们的接待工作热情周到。有一位老先生临别对笔者说:“I have been spoiled these days"。因为在美国,个人均讲究独立,老人也不例外,否则他的自尊心将受到伤害。
笔者见到我系年轻的外籍教师,称赞他“You speak very good Chinese"时,他总是笑着回答:"Oh,thank you!",其实他只会说一点极简单的汉语;而当笔者称赞中国学生"Your English is very good”,他不管心里多高兴,嘴里却说“No, no,My English is not gOOd enough,"其实他英语说得真是不错,但谦虚是美德嘛。然而如果这样回答英国老师的赞扬,就不太得体了,因为在这种场合他总是希望得到Thank you这样一类肯定的答复。
反之亦然。英美学生学汉语也要首先了解中国的交际文化。笔者一同学在某大学给外国留学生讲授汉语。一天,他请新同学作自我介绍,一位同学很认真地用汉语说:“我没结婚,没有孩子。”这句话中国人听起来总觉得那么别扭。老师纠正他说,汉语只要说没结婚就够了,在中国人印象中没结婚一般是不会有孩子的。这位留学生对中国的交际文化了解不够。
禁忌语和体态语言也属于交际文化范畴。我国电影的“金鸡奖”,先译成Golden Cock Prize,谁料到cOck一词除"公鸡"外,还有"雄性器官"的意思,在英语里属于禁忌语,后改译为Golden RoOster Prize。伸出食指和中指,中国人表示"二",可美国人表示V(胜利);我们用大拇指和食指表示"八",可我们的"八"字造型在美国人的眼里却是"二",就这个"二"和"八",在中美交往中闹出过不少笑话。
英汉交际文化上的差异很多,这里只信手拈来几个例子,不--赘述。
1、要明确中学英语教学的主要目的,时刻不忘培养学生的为交际初步运用外语的能力这个根本目标。
2、《全日制中学英语教学大纲》(1990)对英语交际文化的教学提出了具体的要求,即教学大纲的附表一--功能意念项目简表。我们的英语教师要充分意识到这个附表的重要意义,努力完成教学任务。
3、教师要理智地对待不同文化间的差异。在介绍一种文化内容时,要持中立态度,不要轻易他说别人的如何不好,我们的如何好。反之亦然。
4、要充分利用我们现在使用的教材Junior English for China,这套教材将中国文化与英美文化交织在一起,要不失时机地向学生进行交际文化差异的教学。
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根据霍夫斯塔德的文化差异维度理论,社会的男性化和女性化指的是,不同文化的成员有不同的性别意识;不同文化的成员对性别角色有不同的认识。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是:以霍夫斯塔德的文化差异维度理论分析电影《喜宴》中的跨文化交际问题相关论文。具体内容如下,欢迎参考:
以霍夫斯塔德的文化差异维度理论,分析电影《喜宴》中的跨文化交际问题
《喜宴》讲述的是远在台湾的父母赶赴美国参加儿子婚礼而引发的一系列问题。影片男主角伟同在纽约定居十年,事业有成,与男友赛门过着幸福的同居日子。而远在台北父母的一次次逼婚,使伟同被逼以“乖乖仔”形象修书一封声称会在美国结婚,怎料父母想赴美亲眼见证儿子成家。无奈,伟同只得拉上来自上海的不得志的女艺术家葳葳 “假结婚”。父母对葳葳相当满意,却对伟同的草率态度不满,为让父母满意尽快返回台北,伟同犹如“拼命三郎”使出了浑身解
数。但人算不如天算,不断的波折使得父母的返台日期一次次推迟,令他和赛门的感情亮起“红灯”,而葳葳又意外怀上了他的孩子。中西方各自的文化特征及文化冲突问题,在复杂的电影情节中展现的淋漓尽致。因此,本文以霍夫斯塔德的文化差异维度理论为基础,分析电影《喜宴》中的跨文化交际问题,唤醒人们的跨文化交际意识,并探讨如何规避跨文化交际中的碰撞、冲突问题。
根据霍夫斯泰德的文化维度理论,文化差异可用五个文化维度来进行描述和比较。这五个维度分别是个人主义/集体主义、权力距离、回避非确定性、刚性/柔性倾向和短期/长远取向,(汤新煌,2006.08),它们对分析文化冲突的产生具有一定程度的影响。电影《喜宴》体现了东西方文化的各种差异,而霍夫斯塔德的文化差异维度理论是用来衡量不同国家文化差异、价值取向的一个有效架构。
1、个人主义(Individualism)和集体主义(Collectivism)。
霍夫斯塔德在《文化与组织:思维的软件》一书中把个人主义和集体主义定义为:“在个人主义的社会中,人际关系松散,人人各自照顾自己和自己的家庭;相反,在集体主义的社会中,人们从一出生开始就与强大而又具有凝聚力的内部集团结合在一起, 而这种内部集团又对这些忠诚的成员提供终生的保护。”(Hofstede, 1991: 51)
中国是典型的集体主义的国家,强调群体和谐、个人与集体联系紧密,这一思维方式直接体现在中国人的婚姻观念上。中国人在婚姻中重家庭而轻爱情,婚姻不仅仅是个人的事情,而是以家族为单位的“集体”的事情,婚姻的目的很大程度上在于为家族这个“集体”延续香火,传承子嗣。影片中,伟同的父亲始终盼望着伟同能娶妻生子,使自己早日抱上孙子,于是影片中出现了父亲虽然因重病住院却仍念叨着要伟同娶妻生子的场景。
为了帮助父亲实现愿望,为了完成自己传宗接代的任务,伟同决定与葳葳结婚。伟同深爱赛门,虽然极不情愿,但为了取悦父母,伟同还是选择了与葳葳结婚。而西方人宣扬天赋人权,主张人人生而平等以及人权神圣不可侵犯,他们认为,婚姻纯属个人私事,任何人都不能干涉,所以他们极其尊重个人选择的自由。片中伟同的同性伴侣,美国人赛门,一个人在纽约生活,父母并未对他的私生活过多管束,赛门的生活基本与家庭这个“集体”是分离的,所以赛门能够大胆追求自己的幸福,没有太多的顾忌。赛门选择同性恋生活实质就是遵循了西方自由恋爱和爱情至上的观念,仅仅是满足身心需要,而没有对于后代的顾虑,这是个人主义的重要表现。
个人主义和集体主义的不同还体现在中西方对待婚礼的不同态度上。西方婚礼不强调婚礼的隆重性,仅仅是一种证明婚姻合法的手段,在宗教和法律面前的宣誓以示对感情的认真、忠诚。中国人在婚礼问题上则特别强调隆重性、仪式性,并且将这种隆重性与婚姻的稳定和幸福挂钩。影片中,伟同和葳葳原本打算以美国的公证结婚来敷衍了事,但却遭到了父母的强烈反对。影片中母亲说:“结婚是一辈子一次的事情。”
这就是中国人心目中婚礼的意义――通过庞大隆重的仪式来强调婚姻的稳定性。并且由于见证人(宾客)多,还有婚姻双方大量的聘礼、嫁妆,以及“不能丢面子”的思想观念,也成为对婚姻长久性的一种无形的压力。有了隆重的婚礼,离婚、不幸福不稳定的婚姻就成了一种罪孽、反面的存在。这些无一不是对集体主义的体现。而婚礼上,伟同的中国朋友和亲戚起哄,罚酒、闹洞房等行为让外国人瞠目结舌,他们觉的这简直是疯狂至极,不可理喻。西方以尊重个体为出发点,而东方却是以尊重整体牺牲个人为宗旨的。闹洞房就是牺牲了新郎新娘的个人意志而取悦于整体意志的集中表现。
2、权力距离(Power distance)。
霍夫斯塔德提出的第二个文化差异维度是权利距离。任何一个社会中都存在着各种各样的不平等现象,霍氏的权利距离指的正是人们对权力在社会中不平等的分配状态所能接受的程度(彭世勇,2004.01)。具体地说,“权力距离是指在一个国家的机构和组织中(包括家庭、学校和社区中),掌握权力较少的那部分成员对于权力分配不平衡这一现象能够接受的程度。”(Hofstede, 1991:28)霍氏的研究表明,在权力距离不同的国家中,人们的行为方式表现出很大的差异。
中国文化非常强调“礼”和“上下等级”,要求人们对权利、地位、身份(以及辈分、等级、年龄等)比自己高的人必须要保持尊敬和礼貌。中国人注重传统的君臣,父子,论资排辈,等级森严;而在西方国家则提倡人人平等,长辈与晚辈间地位平等,不计较老少界限,多以朋友相处。影片中最明显的体现就是餐厅老板几十年后仍然不改对伟同父亲的称呼,一朝为上级,一生为上级。另外,伟同也以其管理人员的身份,经常拿工资威胁下属。在家里,其父是一家之主,每次吃饭大家都要等他先动筷子品尝饭菜。这些,都体现了中国文化中人与人之间的等级与距离。
3、不确定性规避(Uncertainty Avoidance)。
来自不同文化背景的人对于社会生活中的各种不确定行为、情况或是前景有着不同的认识。霍夫斯塔德认为,“所谓不确定性回避就是文化成员对于不确定的或是未知的情况所感觉到的恐慌程度。这种不确定性给人们造成的恐慌表现为精神紧张或期盼未来的可预见性。”(Hofstede,1991: 113) 具体表现就是文化成员对于成文和不成文规则的需要。
笔者认为,片中中美两国人对同性恋的不同态度,深刻地体现了这一点。美国是由不同民族构成的移民国家,来自世界各地的民族到达北美大陆后还始终保留着自己的传统观念和处事方式,各民族间的交流、融合使美国文化丰富多彩、兼容并蓄,所以美国人在对待新事物上就显得要开放、主动,对社会生活中的各种不确定行为接受程度很高。尽管并不是所有人都接受同性恋,但总体上他们能尊重同性恋者的选择,同性恋者的合法权益在某种程度上能得到保护,所以,同性恋现象在美国人看来就没有那么奇怪。
与之形成鲜明对比的是,中国经历漫长的封建农业社会,自给自足,与外界交流少,再加上封建礼教对人民正常生活的束缚以及中国人对社会生活中的各种不确定行为接受程度较低,所以长期以来中国人民是接受不了同性恋这一较新的事物的。所以现实生活中,中国人大多对同性恋者持怀疑、鄙视的态度,同性恋者得不到应有的尊重,其合法权益也得不到保障。片中中美两国人对同性恋的不同态度,深刻地体现了不同文化背景下的人们对于社会生活中的各种不确定行为、情况或是前景有着不同的认识。
4、男性主义(Masculinity)和女性主义(Femininity)。
根据霍夫斯塔德的文化差异维度理论,社会的男性化和女性化指的是,不同文化的成员有不同的性别意识;不同文化的成员对性别角色有不同的认识。霍氏认为,在男性化社会中,性别角色十分明确,即男性成员应该自信、坚毅,重物质上的成功,女性成员则应该谦虚、温柔,注重生活质量;相反,在女性化的社会中,性别角色常常发生重叠,即男女都应该谦虚、温柔,而且注重生活质量。
男性度与女性度,也称为“刚柔性”,即社会上居于统治地位的价值标准。对于男性文化社会而言,居于统治地位的是男性气概,如自信武断、进取好胜,对于金钱的索取,执着而坦然;而女性社会的文化成员则强调生活的质量、服务、关心他人和养育后代。
(宋雯,2009.06)中国不论是在原始社会还是现代文明社会,男人由于其自身的身体条件和社会赋予他们的使命,使他们从小的时候就受到长大之后要担起家庭和社会责任这样的教育。而女人们自小被灌输的思想当中,更多的是教育其如何做一个好女人、好妻子、好母亲。依照性别角色进行家庭分工是家庭模型的一种重要形式,这种家庭模型在每一种文化中都存在(Samovar,2009:62)。中国传统的大男人和男尊女卑思想根深蒂固,认为女人只能在家里做家务事,一切要听从丈夫的,不能有自己的选择。片中伟同的母亲一生的职业都是全职太太,在心理上,更是把丈夫和儿子做为一生的事业,这一切都反映出中国式男性主义主导的社会。
电影《喜宴》向我们展示了东西方的文化碰撞、冲突现象,然而影片结尾高父、高母的最后妥协以及伟同、葳葳、赛门三人紧紧相拥的画面却向我们透露了一个信息,这种差异并不是牢不可破的,任何文化都是逐渐经历认识文化差异到尊重文化差异再到协调文化差异的过程(张晓玲,2009.02)。随着经济全球化及信息交流的加强,跨文化交际已经成为人们生活中必不可少的部分,人们在接触一种新的文化时,必然会将自己原有的价值观念、信仰、风俗、行为习惯等方面融入到新的文化中(陈建平,2012:122),而新旧文化的融合则要经过四个阶段:蜜月阶段、烦躁和敌视阶段、逐渐适应阶段、双重文化阶段(陈建平,2012:123)。
如何克服文化差异造成的交际障碍是我们面临的重要问题。作为英语学习者,在学习语言的同时,更要注重对语言背后文化的学习。我们应当正确认识和定位文化差异,了解不同地区的文化背景,尊重其社会习惯和风土人情,积极提高自身文化适应性,使中西文化将在碰撞中不断融合,在交流中不断发展。
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古希腊神话是古希腊人民智慧的结晶,它的想象力丰富多彩,激发了人们探求古希腊文明的欲望和热情。马克思曾经指出:“希腊的神话和史诗是发展的最完美的人类童年的产物,具有永久的魅力”。希腊神话是西方文化宝库里的璀璨明珠,对西方国家社会生活和人们的思维方式等各个方面均产生了极其深远的影响。它不但是西方文化的源泉,而且深深地根植于西方各国的语言文化之中。因此,对希腊神话的深入研究是了解和研究英语语言文化的关键。
英语语言文化有两个主要源头——古希腊罗马神话和圣经。英语的词汇从神话故事中吸取精髓,将神话故事中的词汇、神名、传说故事演化,由此大大地丰富了英语语言。希腊神话以其丰富的想象力、丰富的故事情节流传于世。
希腊神话对英语词汇的影响主要体现在词汇和习语方面,主要形式有直接引用、转义借用、派生新词和词根化。这方面的例子有:Flora是古希腊神话中的花神。她嫁给了西风之神Zephyr,婚后她的丈夫送给她一座满是奇花异草的花园。Flora和Zephyr生活幸福,感情甜蜜,每当他们一起在花园散步时,沿途的百花都会竟相开放。Flora 在现代英语里指代“植物”,衍生词有flower,flour,flourish,floral,florist等;神话中人间的王子那喀索斯(narcissus)是个长相英俊的美少年,经常喜欢独自一人在森林中漫步,他脱俗的外表和气质吸引了森林女神艾蔻(echo)的注意,渐渐的她爱上了这个王子,每天都跟随在王子的身后,但是却无法表白,因为她遭到了天后赫拉的诅咒终生只能重复别人话语的后三个字。艾蔻本是天后赫拉的侍女,活泼爱动且多嘴多舌,在赫拉和天神宙斯的婚礼上,因为艾蔻的原因导致宙斯在结婚誓言中没有说愿意一生一世只爱赫拉一人而遭到了赫拉的恨意,婚后的宙斯没有收敛拈花惹草的天性令赫拉头痛不已。传说赫拉在天宫中正为此郁闷,拨开云雾看到了人间森林中艾蔻跟踪那喀索斯的一幕,遂心生一计,惩罚艾蔻永远得不到所爱人的心。后来那喀索斯忍不住问艾蔻“你是谁呀?”,艾蔻只能不断的重复“是谁呀,是谁呀……”而遭到那喀索斯的讨厌,最后艾蔻抑郁而终,死后变成了山谷中的“回声”,而那喀索斯也被赫拉施以诅咒,爱上了自己水中的倒影,而变成了一株“水仙花”,后来的他的名字还引申为“自恋,自我陶醉”的意思;著名运动品牌耐克的商标也来源于希腊神话故事,耐克(Nike)是神话中的胜利女神,这一品牌正是源于女神名字的引申含义。
源自于希腊神话中的习语更是不胜枚举,如Pandora’s box(潘多拉的宝盒),天神普罗米修斯心地善良同情人间疾苦,不顾众神的反对,偷偷教给人类许多生存技巧和知识,后来甚至把圣火火种带到了人间造福千千万万的平民百姓。这让一直持反对意见的主神宙斯知道了,宙斯勃然大怒而对普罗米修斯和人类都施加惩罚。宙斯先是把普罗米修斯捆绑到了高加索山峰上,日夜折磨他的身心,每天白天都让鹰啄食他的内脏,然后又施加法术,让其夜晚再长出来,日以继夜。宙斯为了报复人类,亲自创造了只有美丽的外表但是却没有头脑思想又充满了好奇心的美女潘多拉,然后他又制造了装满邪恶、苦难、疾病、战争等的盒子让潘多拉带到人间,但是希望女神在盒底偷偷放入了希望的种子。宙斯让普罗米修斯的弟弟爱上了潘多拉而结婚,但是却在新婚之夜诱惑潘多拉打开了盒子,潘多拉惊慌失措连忙把盒子合上,却把希望留在了盒中,后来这个习语意为“灾难的根源”;Achilles’ heel(阿喀琉斯之踵),阿喀琉斯是神话中海洋女神忒提斯和人类的孩子,是半人半神的英雄,故事源于荷马史诗《伊利亚特》。因为是人和神的孩子,所以他不能像神那样可以永生,所以她的母亲忒提斯在他刚出生即把他浸入冥河河水中让儿子成为刀枪不入之身,但是由于脚后跟被母亲双手捏着而没有浸到河水,成为了他唯一的弱点,此事在特洛伊之战中被对手知道而丧命,后来这个习语意为“致命的弱点”;Apple of discord(不和的根源),故事源于不和女神艾瑞斯的一只金苹果,看不惯人们友好幸福的不和女神制作了一只写有“送给最美的女神”的金苹果,引起了天后赫拉,智慧女神雅典娜和爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒的争夺。由于各执一词,她们找到了特洛伊王子帕里斯裁决,为了能获得这“最美女神”的虚荣,她们各自向王子承诺地位、财富、智慧与美女,后来阿芙洛狄忒许诺的美女让王子最为动心。这就是希腊斯巴达王后海伦的被抢夺说导致的特洛伊之战,也是由“一只苹果”而引发的战争,因此apple of discord意思就是“不和的根源,发生纠纷的事端”。而故事中的美女海伦因为是这场战争的导火索也衍生出了“Helen of Troy”这一习语,意为“祸端,红颜祸水,倾城美人”;随着东西方文化的交融,在我国每年过西方“情人节”的人不在少数,人们都对那个胖嘟嘟精灵可爱的身后背着箭篓的小爱神丘比特印象深刻,可是要是问道这个节日的背后的故事恐怕了解的人就会寥寥无几了。丘比特是希腊神话中的私生子,他的身世也暗示了但是社会现状丑陋的一面。他的母亲是希腊神话中的爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒,她在罗马神话中的名字更为著名:维纳斯,他的父亲是战神马尔斯。阿芙洛狄忒与马尔斯都是宙斯的孩子,是兄妹关系,这一乱伦爱情也体现了希腊神话母体之一:乱伦。宙斯风流成性竟然爱上了自己的女儿——爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒,但却遭到了女儿的强烈反抗,激怒了宙斯,宙斯遂把她嫁给了天神中相貌最丑陋的神匠赫菲斯托斯。由于对生活的不满,产生了兄妹之间的不伦之恋而生下了盲孩丘比特,因为先天的缺陷,天神怜悯赋予其掌管爱情和婚姻的能力,天神赐予他一只铅箭一只金箭,当他把铅箭射向人们的时候相爱的人就会分开,当他把金箭射向人们的时候人们则会相爱。丘比特爱玩闹是个永远长不大的孩子,经常胡乱射箭,因此产生了习语Love is blind意思就是“爱情是盲目的”。
希腊神话不仅是希腊文学的摇篮,而且对欧美文学有着深远的影响。现代社会被广为流传的希腊神话或传说大多来源于希腊文学作品。古希腊大诗人荷马的两部伟大的史诗巨著:一部是《伊利亚特》,一部是《奥德赛》包括了绝大部分的希腊神话。分别描述了古希腊人和特洛伊人交战攻打伊利亚特城的经过和希腊军队在返回的途中所遇到的许多不可思议的见闻;闻名遐尔的古希腊三大悲剧诗人埃斯库罗斯、索福克勒斯和欧里庇得斯流传下来的 34 部悲剧中有 33 部都以神话为题材。这其中著名的作品有《被缚的普罗米修斯》、《俄狄浦斯王》和《美狄亚》;后世的诗人文学家用神话故事作为创作素材的更是恒河沙数,从乔叟到莎士比亚、弥尔顿、济慈、丁尼生、雪莱、拜伦、朗费罗、艾略特、庞德等人,无一不从神话中获得灵感,撷取思想和题材,创作出了许多不朽的名篇。譬如莎士比亚的《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》和长诗《维那斯与阿多尼斯》,弥尔顿的《失乐园》,雪莱的《解放了的普罗米修斯》,济慈的《阿波罗颂》、《希腊古瓮》,艾略特的《荒原》,庞德的《诗章》等等。《罗密欧与朱丽叶》、《老人与海》、《基督山伯爵》等现代作品以及极具有影响力的电影《泰坦尼克号》、《特洛伊》、《诸神之战》、《诸神之怒》、《爱丽丝梦游仙境》等也是以神话故事的母题为创作栏板。神话故事曲折丰富的故事在给读者美德享受的同时也激发了艺术家们丰富的想象力。《基督山伯爵》是发货著名作家大仲马的一部脍炙人口的作品,作者用艺术手法表现了希腊神话中报恩与复仇的主题。在故事中男主角埃德蒙·唐代斯是一名聪明善良的年轻大副,有理想有抱负,但同时也遭到了众多嫉妒他的爱情、事业的小人的算计,这些人有社会底层也有所谓的三层社会,他们互相勾结,暗算了少年得志的唐代斯使他无辜入狱,但在入狱后唐代斯机缘巧合结石了神父法里亚,法里亚博学多闻因为政治原因入狱,但是同时他又掌握着一个关于宝藏的惊天秘密。在神父的帮助下唐代斯分析出了自己被迫害的真相。神父在狱中把毕生所学都传授给了唐代斯,使他从外表到气质都发生了彻底的转变。后来在意外中,唐代斯得以离开暗无天日的牢狱并且得到了宝藏开始了他的报仇与报恩,在弘扬人性善良的同时揭露了所谓上层社会虚伪的嘴脸。最后他与爱人一起杨帆远航开拓新生活;《爱丽丝梦游仙境》是由英国作家查尔斯·路德维希·道奇森(Charles Lutwidge Dodgson)以笔名路易斯·卡罗(Lewis Carroll)出版的儿童文学作品。作品体现了希腊神话中的探险和冒险的主题。故事后来被改编成了广受欢迎的3D影片。在故事中主角爱丽丝偶然掉到了兔子洞中,开始一段奇妙的旅行,故事中的动物都能讲话都在做着不可思议的事情,爱丽丝同动物朋友们一起经历了奇妙的探险旅程,故事想象力丰富,成为了一代又一代孩子们在人生中最先接触的文学作品之一。后来故事还衍生出了医学词汇Alice Syndrome,意为爱丽丝综合症,其症状为病患通过自己的观察感觉事物忽大忽小,甚至产生时空扭曲等特殊视觉效果,多发于儿童时期。要充分了解英美文学,熟读希腊罗马神话是很有必要的。希腊神话以丰富的哲理和想象力在文学史上划下了绚烂的符号。
作为一名英语教师,本人在多年的教学中发现,在词汇的学习中,学生往往感觉枯燥乏味,而且易于遗忘,最后会对词汇的记忆产生烦躁情绪和抵触心理。如若在讲授过程中添加语言文化知识,不仅提升学习趣味性而且也加深了词汇学习的记忆,让学习者在知其所以然的情况下接受语言知识,促进跨文化交际。希腊神话的故事性、哲理性对英语语言文化,甚至西方语言文化都产生并将继续产生深远影响,对西方生活的方方面面的影响也是非常值得研究及深入探讨的,她深深的植根于西方文化的血液中,是每一名语言学习者不可逾越的文化源头。
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英汉两种语言的表达方式、语言习惯的不同,决定了它们所表达的相同事物之间存在着明显的差异性。然而,由于语言之间的相通性、相融性,也决定了不同语言的相同事物之间又在某些方面存在着必然的共同性。英、汉姓名的异同就是其差异性与共同性的具体体现之一,而在其中所蕴涵的深远的文化底蕴是值得我们回味与咀嚼的。本文就英汉姓名的文化内涵及其翻译方法进行粗浅探讨。
姓名的翻译要遵循两个原则:“名从主人原则”和“约定俗成原则”。“名从主人原则”是指在翻译姓名时,要以该姓名所在国语言的发音为准,而不管该姓名是直接从原文译出的,还是从其他文字转译的。换言之,就是译哪个国家的姓名就要以哪个国家的音为准。如Skolovski“斯克沃夫斯基”(波兰语发音),而不译作“斯科路夫斯基”(英语发音)。“约定俗成原则”是指有些姓名在长期的翻译实践中,已经有了固定的译法,就应该继续使用下去,即使有的不够妥帖,甚至错了,但因多年来已为人们所公认和熟悉,这样的译名也该继续沿用,无须另定译名。如英国著名作家George Bernard Shaw正确的汉译名应是“乔治·伯纳·萧”,但过去该作家的名字一直被译作“萧伯纳”,变成了一个典型的汉名,我们也只有错误地沿袭下去了。
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