为您找到与语言与文化课堂笔记相关的共200个结果:
Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
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it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
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新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
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文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
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良好的课堂心理环境是指课堂教学的情、境符合学生的心理特点和求知欲望,师生之间、学生之间关系融洽、和谐。在良好的课堂心理环境中,师生思维敏捷,心情舒畅,会产生满足、愉悦、成功、幸福等积极的体验。创设自然科学课堂的良好心理环境,旨在使学生主动而快乐地参与教学的全过程,促进学生形成良好的心理品质。以下是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:军校文化课课堂良好心理气氛的创设研究相关论文。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
摘要:随着军队院校改革发展,军校不仅仅要为基层部队培养军事素质过硬的指挥官,更高的目标是培养具有带兵思路和智慧,能打仗、打胜仗的新型指挥人才,所以提高军队院校文化课教学的质效势在必行。本文依据课堂心理气氛的相关理论,结合现阶段军校文化课课堂的现状,分析了文化课课堂心理气氛的影响因素,提出了营造文化课良好课堂心理气氛的几种对策。
一直以来,军队院校传统的文化课课堂教学注重教学过程中的技术性因素而容易排斥情感性因素,注重知识的灌输植入而忽视了和谐课堂的构建,造成文化课课堂教学刚性有余而学术不足,缺乏活跃的气息和愉快的情绪,学员的积极性、主动性未能得到有效的发挥,从而影响教学目标的实现。
心理气氛是指群体在集体活动中表现出来的具有潜移默化作用的比较稳定的情绪情感状态。是指集体中大多数人的情感和态度的综合体现,它对集体中每一名成员的心理状态和行为表现都会产生一定作用,且每个集体都有属于自己的风格和作风,存在一定的差异性。
课堂心理气氛则是指课堂上占优势的情感和态度的综合表现,是师生之间、学员之间在相互交流和反馈所表现出的相对稳定的情绪情感、注意力、定势思维以及感知觉等心理状态。通常所说的气氛活跃、积极或压抑、师生关系和谐融洽或紧张等均属于课堂心理气氛。
(一)主导因素――教员
1.自身个性修养:教员是课堂气氛的主导者,其个性修养对课堂心理气氛具有重要影响。在访谈中了解到,学员会随着教员积极的个性品质而变得活跃起来,愿意跟着教员的节奏进行学习,课堂气氛多呈积极型。一个具有良好个性品质的教员,应具备较强的自制力,不能把生活的负面情绪带到课堂中,这样才能保证教学的顺利进行。
2.专业素质能力:通过对问卷调查得知,很多学员敬重知识渊博,专业素质高的教员,学员由心的敬重和佩服这些教员。同时学员渴望学习到更全面、更系统的知识,他们不喜欢只是简单地照本宣科的教员,喜欢不仅能把教材的重点、难点深入浅出、生动活泼地讲解出来,同时还结合时事让学员了解更多的知识和信息的教员。这样的教员才会吸引课堂的注意力,保持课堂良好的氛围。
3.组织控制能力:教员是课堂教学的组织者和管理者,其组织能力和管理方式对课堂气氛有着重要的影响。通过问卷、访谈等方法了解到,课堂上如果教员没有明确的思路组织教学活动,课堂一般呈消极型心理气氛。而教员思路清晰,根据教学计划安排,完成教学目标,并在上课的过程中组织控制整个过程,充分调动学员的积极性,学员更愿意认真听课,积极协同教员,课堂教学效率高,课堂气氛活跃。
(二)主导因素――学员
1.学习态度和动机:通过访谈了解到,很多学员重军事,轻文化,对待文化课学习消极,认为文化课上学习的知识无用,或无实际效益。而学员的学习态度端正,学习动机积极,在课堂教学中就会表现出有浓厚的学习兴趣和主动的探究行为,与教员教学积极配合,课堂气氛往往呈现出活跃的状态;反之,如果学习态度不端正或缺乏学习动机的学员,在课堂上就会表现出注意力不集中,沉闷寡语,甚至不守纪律,造成课堂气氛压抑或混乱。
2.学习目标:在访谈中了解到,学员的个人学习目标对课堂心理气氛影响很大。由心理学相关研究可知,学员个人的目标和课堂教学目标是否一致,会影响学员的学习情绪,进而制约着课堂心理气氛。就具体一堂课而讲,学员能否处于高昂的精神状态之中,首先要看其个人的目标同本堂课的教学目的是否一致,只有当个体的目标同教学的目标趋于一致时,才能使课堂内气氛高涨,并且学习效率也高。
3.学员之间关系:在文化课的课堂教学中,学员与学员之间存在着互动作用。有关研究表明,如若学员之间彼此团结、心理相容、凝聚力强,就易于形成良好的课堂心理气氛;如若学员之间勾心斗角、离心离德、各行其是、凝聚力低,则很难形成良好的课堂心理气氛。
(三)外部因素
1.校风和学风:通过访谈、问卷等方式了解到,良好的校风和学风也是影响课堂心理气氛的重要因素。学员为更好地适应军校生活会依据校风和学风规范和约束自身的行为,适应军校生活并积极作用于军校,完成军校内工作和学习。良好的校风和学风一经形成,便可以为课堂教学奠定稳定的背景,对学员具有潜移默化的规范和约束作用,并能使学员感到自身行为有所遵循,产生以连为家、以校为家的安全感,减少或消除紧张焦虑情绪,进而促进良好课堂心理气氛的形成和维持。
2.连队管理:军校学员的大部分时间都生活在学员连队里,和连队主官及其他学员共同生活、学习、训练、工作。据调查统计,现在的连队管理对文化课教学是有很大影响的。学员在连队里的生活、教育、训练、执勤等都会影响文化课课堂上学员的情绪情感,从而影响文化课课堂的心理气氛。如有的连队安排的军事训练不合理,训练量过大、训练没有计划,训练时间比较随意。这些都会影响学员的身体状况和心理状况,从而影响到正常的课堂教学。
(一)树立教育教学威信
教员的教学威信是指教员使学员感到尊敬而信服精的神号召力,是影响学员情绪情感体验、制约课堂心理气氛的重要因素。但是在和教员交流时,发现有的教员抱怨说,有的学员不认教员的账,看课外书,小声说话,出现管不了的现象。出现这种情况,说明教员的教育威信存在问题。要树立教员的教育教学威信,具体需要做到以下两点:一是教员在课堂教学活动中要严格要求自己,为人师表,以身作则,用自己良好的形象影响学员。二是教员要不断提升自己的专业素质,有学识、知识渊博的教员才能受到学员的敬重和佩服。
(二)提高学习认知,培养学习兴趣
认知心理学认为,在创造学习的外部条件时,必须以内部的认知规律为前提。认知决定着学习效率和学习结果,爱学习、会学习、善学习的学员才能成为高效的学习者,而兴趣是最好的老师,对学习感兴趣的学员才会集中更多精力和时间在学习上,在课堂上才能始终跟着教员的思路,积极配合教员,踊跃发言,这样营造出的课堂心理气氛将是积极的,所以培养学习兴趣很重要。提高学习认知,培养学习兴趣,首先要端正学习态度和动机,将学习的外部动机转化为内部动机,培养自己对于学习本身的热爱。其次还要明确学习目标,制定一个自己“跳一跳,能够着”的学习目标,才能强化自己对学习的兴趣。
(三)正规制度、计划,化解外部压力
军队院校是个大环境,为了营造良好的课堂心理气氛,学院必须出台相应的维持教学秩序的政策。一是惩罚制度。学员因自身个人需要,不经请假,无故旷课,应严肃处理。学员因连队公差,不符合规定,上课迟到或早退,应追究营连主官责任。二是奖励制度。对于学员在课堂表现优异的连队,学员无迟到或早退现象的连队,学员给予相应营连队主官一定奖励,从而能鼓励营连主官,抓好学员上课秩序。需要注意的是,学院出台政策后,相关处室要加强检查监督,确保制度真正落到实处。
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语言艺术是艺术的一个门类,它是运用语言的手段创造审美的形象的一种艺术形式。它包括戏剧小品、播音主持、演讲、辩论等艺术形式。它的表达方法可以有呼吸法、语言速度、单人、多人、混声等多种形式。一般说来,语言艺术和文学、戏剧等有所不同。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的:历史教师在课堂上要讲究语言艺术相关论文。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
历史教师在课堂上要讲究语言艺术全文如下:
教育家苏霍姆林斯基说:“教师的语言修养在极大程度上决定着学生在课堂上脑力劳动的效率。”随着时代的发展,教师在课堂里可以借助板书、图片、幻灯片、电脑等多种教学设备,但是语言讲述仍是最为主要的授课方法。良好的教师语言是教师做好本职工作的特殊工具,是教师驾驭课堂教学最优化的手段之一。历史教师必须掌握练好教学语言的基本功,用确切、生动的语言营造轻松、愉悦的课堂氛围,使学生遨游于知识的海洋中,听得懂、记得牢、用得上,最后顺利达到预设目标。
教师的语言应丰富多彩,多变的语言形式不但可以使教师所表达的内容准确、生动,而且可以调动学生的学习积极性。根据表达形式的不同,教师语言可以分为叙述语言、说明语言、描述语言等类型。
1.叙述语言。
历史学科的叙述语言是指对历史事件的发展过程、历史现象的基本状况、历史人物的主要活动等进行具体而完整的讲述,按照时间的先后顺序,对特定的教学内容进行生动、具体、形象的讲述。如讲一个历史事件,需要讲清事件的由来、开端、发展、高潮、后续及结局等。教师的叙述语言是否具体生动和有感染力,往往取决于选材是否典型、层次和线索是否清晰、情感是否鲜明及对语言是否能够驾驭。
2.说明语言。
历史学科的说明语言是指对教学内容进行扼要的概括讲述,以精练的语言勾勒出历史发展的面貌和基本线索。说明语言的特点既不像叙述那样有情节,更不像描述那样要求形象化,而是要条理清晰、层次分明、逻辑完整[3]。一般用于教学内容中比较次要的部分,如背景性的情况、前后事件的衔接、与重点内容相关的部分、对本课知识的小结,等等。
3.描述语言。
历史学科的描述语言是指对一些历史内容进行细致的语言描绘,如历史人物形象、历史地理环境的状况、历史战争的场面、历史活动的背景、历史器物的特色,等等。描述语言的特点是形象化,重在对细节的刻画。一般运用在教学内容的重点部分,以突出其特征。
叙述、说明、描述这三种语言方式在历史课堂教学的实际使用中并不是截然划分、一成不变的,需要教师根据教学内容和学生实际情况加以综合、灵活的运用。
良好的教学语言可以更好地为教育教学服务,强化表达效果,进而促进教学质量的提高。然而,要做到这些,不是一件简单的事,需要历史教师不断提高自身的语言素养,在课堂上做到以下几点:
1.音量、语速要适中。
由于目前课堂教学普遍实行的是班级授课制,这一客观情况限定了教师的教学口语必须有必要的音量。这就需要教师根据学生的多少、教室的大小设定自己语言音量的高低。如果音量过大,则会使学生的听觉易疲劳,高音量便成了噪音,而过小,则会使后排学生感到费力。所以教师的音量应该以让坐在后排的学生听得清晰为准。
教师教学口语语速的快慢虽然没有固定的标准,但教师的授课是为了学生的学,所以易于为学生所接受的语速应该有比较稳定的标准,既要使学生有足够的思考反应时间,又要保证单位时间内语言包含的信息量。
2.表意要准确,具有科学性。
教师是利用课堂传道授业解惑的。历史课堂语言作为一种教学语言,最重要的是准确无误,具有缜密的科学性[4]。如秦灭六国之前,嬴政是战国时期秦国的国君,必须以“秦王”相称,称他为“秦王嬴政”;秦灭六国,全国统一,嬴政称帝,秦朝的历史开始了,这样,称皇帝以后的嬴政,必须以“秦始皇”相称。“秦王”和“秦始皇”、“秦国和秦朝”,一二字之差,但如果颠倒了时序,前后乱用,或者模棱两可,闪烁其词,则都是科学性错误。再比如辛亥革命的历史意义应该是:推翻了两千多年的“君主制度”或者“封建君主制度”。有的教师说成推翻了“封建统治”。其实,辛亥革命只是赶跑了一个皇帝,结束了君主制度,而社会依然是封建社会,无论是袁世凯还是后来的新老军阀的统治,都没有改变封建统治的本质。在这里,“封建君主制度”和“封建统治”文字上的差别无几,而概念完全不同。用字、用词的不准确,不仅会引起学生对所学内容的怀疑,更易导致判断上的失误。因此,历史教师的课堂用语必须严谨、准确,具有科学性。
3.内容要灵活,具有时代性。
历史作为一门科学,有自己的理论体系和基本内容,教师是不可以任意增删和修正的。但实践是不断发展的,这门科学也在不断发展之中。新的古迹、古籍的发现、开发,产生大量新概念与新观点,使这门科学更丰富、翔实。历史教科书具有相对的稳定性,但其中的观点和材料已经不可避免地显露出陈旧性。如对西方资产阶级民主政治的认识、中国近代史上的人物评价等都存在不同程度的滞后和误解。这就要求历史教师时刻把握研究的新动向,认真学习和掌握新知识,在不脱离教材的情况下,把一些最新的知识准确地传授给学生。
同时,历史教师也要注意,在讲古人古事的时候,不可乱用现代名词与现代术语,尤其网络用语最易犯忌。相反,若能适当应用古人说过的原话,则古籍上记述的原文反而能将历史画面鲜明地呈现在学生的面前。例如讲汉武帝反击匈奴战争的结果时,教师在讲汉军打败匈奴以后,如果补充一句“从此漠南无王庭”,则可以唤起学生一连串联想:汉军打败匈奴取得了重大胜利,长时间里,匈奴贵族不敢再带兵到蒙古大沙漠以南骚扰,从此大漠以南再无匈奴单于的王庭,西汉北部边郡得到了安定[5]。一句原话,联想一串现象,概括一个时代的面貌。这样做,既能把时代气息染得浓浓的,又能充分激发学生学习历史的兴趣。
4.语言要通俗、易懂,具有简洁性。 语言作为一种交流工具,其表达方式可谓五花八门、千姿百态。浅白通俗的语言,使人听来清楚易懂,且有平易、朴素、亲切之感。毛泽东同志的“十大教授法”中就有“说话通俗化”、“说话要明白”这两条[6]。做到通俗易懂不是一件容易的事,首先需要历史教师深入理解教学内容,只有懂透彻了,融会贯通了,才能用浅显的话说出来;其次历史教师要有丰富的词汇量,有些教师也做到了深入理解,但不能准确表达出,词汇贫乏是重要原因。
一节历史课的时间是有限的,并且每节课都有一定的教学任务。因此,历史课堂语言务必简练、干净。如在讲西周的宗法制时,可以概括为“嫡长子继承制”和“以血缘关系为纽带”,既抓住问题本质,又使学生加深印象,便于记忆。与此同时,也要防止出现“嗯”、“啊”、“这个”、“那个”等口头禅,少问“懂吗?”这样没有意义的问题,否则会使学生原本就不易集中的注意力变得更分散。
5.要有一定的情感性。
历史教师站在讲台上不是没有感情的物品,是带着思想、领悟、感动来的。要使学生真正吸收知识,就不能只片面追求语言技巧,更重要的是要有真实感情,真情实感会对学生产生巨大感召力。如在讲到列强的侵略史时,学生要从老师的语言中感受到对列强疯狂侵占的愤怒及对清政府无能的深深失望。历史教师不仅要让学生从理智上,而且要从感情上分清敌与友、爱和憎,才能通过历史课真正起到教书育人的作用[7]。而要增强语言的情感色彩,就要做到不矫揉造作、故作惊人之语,不堆砌空泛的形容词,不为增加感情色彩而增加感情色彩,只有在此基础上,教师语言的表情达意才能感人至深。
综上所述,课堂教学语言非常重要,也有一定要求,如果达到这些要求,就能使语言表达起到融洽师生关系,创造和谐的学习环境;启迪学生思维,激发学生学习兴趣;增强教学效果,提高教育教学质量的巨大作用。因此,每个历史教师都要根据自己的实际,努力提高教学语言修养:首先,要提高自身的文学修养,对历史课堂语言加以文学化、哲理化,真正做到读史明智。
其次,要精心备课。在备课的同时,对学生会有的反应、状态、语言表达的各个环节加以充分思考,在表达技巧上下工夫;同时也要不断向其他优秀教师学习,累积经验。再次,要增大知识容量,丰富史料内容与优秀的语言表达是以教师掌握的史料内容与知识容量为基础的。只有掌握了丰富的史料知识,才能做到用词恰到好处,生动形象,充分发挥历史课堂的语言表达功能,使学生在学习中提高鉴别、欣赏和创造能力,取得良好的教学效果。
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在企业、学校和其它组织中,信息技术体系结构是一个为达成战略目标而采用和发展信息技术的综合结构。它包括管理和技术的成分。其管理成分包括使命、职能与信息需求、系统配置和信息流程;技术成分包括用于实现管理体系结构的信息技术标准、规则等。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的:浅谈信息技术在旅游文化课堂的有效应用相关论文。文章仅供参考阅读,希望能帮助到大家。
浅谈信息技术在旅游文化课堂的有效应用全文如下:
随着信息技术发展的不断深入,当下的课堂教学出现了白板教学、网络教学、翻转课堂等新型的教学方式与学习方式,改变了以往以教师为主导的教学模式。信息时代的到来,使得多媒体教学在日常教学中得到了广泛的运用,一改往日只由教师在三尺讲台上运用个体的声情并茂来吸引学生的注意力,极大地丰富了课堂教学中的直观性,使学生容易产生身临其境的感觉,发展了学生的创造性思维,提高了学习效率,优化了课堂教学质量。它有利于学生主动发现、积极探索知识,还有利于发展联想思维和建立新旧知识及各类知识之间的网状联系。因此,在以学生为主体的学习课堂上,如何把信息技术与旅游文化课程内容相结合,打造出高效率的课堂,充分对信息技术的有效应用,成为当下旅游文化课程值得探究的话题。
俗话说"一日之计在于晨",同理,一堂课的效率高低也在于开端处是否能完全引起学生对课堂的关注度。要想引起学生对课堂的关注度,首先教师的导入设计是关键。在旅游文化课堂上,多媒体技术采用图音结合的教学方法具有新颖性、趣味性和多样性,能吸引学生的眼球,也可以巧设悬念,更能引起学生的浓厚兴趣,使学生产生学习的好奇心,从而促进学生学习的积极性。如在学习《汉族民俗风情》一课时,利用多媒体播放我国汉族传统节日欢庆盛况图片,色彩斑斓的影音图片,立刻把学生的目光集聚到荧屏上。接着教师在屏幕上提出问题:请同学们一起来猜一猜图片上的精彩画面是哪个民族过的节日呀?以图片展示来提出问题给学生的心理设下悬念,让同学们在课堂上各执己见,畅所欲言,活跃了课堂气氛,为课堂的"眼"点上了"睛",从而营造出学生愿学、乐学的课堂氛围。
随着社会生产力的发展,旅游文化中涉及的旅游资源、文化演变的形态,也不断更新。一直以来,许多人包括我们的一部分学生总认为旅游文化只是在"纸上谈兵",均是些过时的东西,学生缺乏真实的感受,没什么学习的必要,学生主动学习的意愿较低。而引入多媒体技术教学以后,我们可以把一些新闻报道、纪录片以及反映实际的图片、数据、视频片断与旅游文化课有机地结合起来,用事实说话,实现了超时空的信息再现,从而大大提高了旅游文化与时俱进的程度。
例如,当我们在学习《认识旅游》一课时,在讲到旅游业发展前景时,学生对于书本上知识只是粗糙认知一下便放下了,总感觉离自己的职业发展相距很远,提不起学习的动力。当通过网络媒体收集到的资讯与图片运多幻灯片等方式来展示一些影音图像,切入一些当前旅游动态发展的图表数据,学生对所学专业的自信心又提了上来,对课堂的参与度也会随之提升。因此,旅游文化课程的学习离不开信息技术的运用,教师要日常备课与教学过程中需从网络等媒体上收集大量的现实动态信息,通过信息技术的运用来辅助教学,大大增强旅游文化课的可信度及给学生学习提供了源源不断的动力。
当下,仅凭教师"一张嘴、一支粉笔、一本书"的传统教学方式已经不能适应现代教育的发展,尤其无法满足学生的学习需求。旅游文化学科涵盖的知识面比较广,从民俗风情到园林与建筑、宗教文化等方面都涉及。在制作多媒体课件时,对一些课堂上较难表达的历史知识、基本概念和文化特色等,可以分专题到有关网站上查找相关资料,搜集与教学内容有关的图、文、声、像材料,然后制作成多媒体课件来组织课堂教学。节省了很多板书的内容,同时也为教师在课堂上与学生互动提供了很大的便利性。
这种多媒体课件不仅能将大量的资料呈现给学生,大大拓宽学生的视野,而且在说明行业发展动态、概念及文化特色实时材料集中,简明准确,省时省力,从而达到大容量、高密度、快节奏的现代课堂教学要求,做到内容精简、分析精辟、语言精练,使得课堂教学节奏明快紧凑。用多媒体信息技术能化虚为实,化繁为简,使旅游文化的时空性清晰地呈现在学生面前,便于学生理解。从而优化了课堂结构,提升了旅游文化课堂教学的效率。
多媒体教学技术的交互性是独一无二的,教师可以结合学生的学情及授课的内容通过翻转课堂的方式让学生依据教师所列的知识问题点进行先学习,并辅之以有效的奖惩机制,充分调动学生的积极性,培养学生解决问题的能力,让学生回归学习的主体地位。传统的旅游文化课堂中,只能依赖一本精而又精、简而又简的教科书,再由教师单一的在课堂上让学生画画记记,完全不可能体现学生学习的主体地位。
运用信息技术能提供直观形象和生动逼真的动态图像,伴随着图像的闪动、变化,不仅激发学生的学习情绪,又能发展学生的观察能力和空间想象能力,激活学生的思维能力,以其集图、文、声、像、动画于一体,资料翔实,线索清晰,操作简便等特点,有着传统教学手段所不具备的优势。再者由教师在课堂上通过提问或让学生答题的方式来检验学生去所学知识的掌握程度,这样的方式也会促使学生主动地将头脑中已形成的认识与新知识加以对比、分析、判断和重组,形成新的知识体系,加深了学生对知识的理解和巩固。同时,也使学生认识问题、分析问题、理解问题、解决问题的能力都得到了提高,进而从中获得学习的乐趣与成就感,真正地成为学习的主体。
在旅游文化的课堂上,有效地运用信息技术融入课堂,能为课堂的导入起到画龙点睛的作用,也可以为学生学习旅游文化增添信心,还可以起到优化课堂的结构,为创建高效率的课堂营造良好的学习氛围,同时还能利用翻转课堂的模式充分调动学生学习兴趣,让学生认识问题、分析问题、理解问题、解决问题的能力都得到了提高,真正地成为课堂学习的主体。
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创新意识是指人们根据社会和个体生活发展的需要,引起创造前所未有的事物或观念的动机,并在创造活动中表现出的意向、愿望和设想。它是人类意识活动中的一种积极的、富有成果性的表现形式,是人们进行创造活动的出发点和内在动力。是创造性思维和创造力的前提。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的:超越语言心智,培养美术课堂创新意识相关论文。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
超越语言心智,培养美术课堂创新意识全文如下:
小学生们的特点是好动、可爱,喜欢联想,所以小学美术教师可以根据小学生的特点,具有针对性的进行培训,激发学生们的想象力和创造力,进而使学生们具有一定的创新意识。
美术课堂教学是建立在教师和学生之间良好的沟通之上的,和谐的师生关系有助于提高教师的教学质量和学生的学习效率。因此,教师一定要注重课堂气氛的营造和与学生之间的相处,和学生进行平等真诚地交流,对学生多一些赞赏和鼓励,让学生感受到美术课堂的良好气氛,让学生能够在舒适的课堂环境中更好地发挥。
1.角色和地位的转变
教师要注重与学生之间的平等地交流和沟通,由以往的知识灌输者向学习学习的引导者转变,与学生进行朋友式的和谐相处,与学生共同学习、共同进步,给予学生充分的尊重和信任,进而使学生们觉得自己受到了尊重,并且还要教师将自己最美丽的微笑展现给所有学生,从而使小学生们对学习美术充满兴趣,在最大程度上提高美术课堂的教学效率。
2.少责怪多激励
小学美术教师在讲课过程中,要对学生们进行充分了解,然后根据每一位学生的特点,具有针对性地制定不同的学习目标,做到因材施教、因人施教,总之,就是尽量避免对学生们打骂,多多鼓励学生们,无论学生们提出怎样的奇怪问题,都要一视同仁,及时给予学生们相应的鼓励和评价;另外,对于学生们在美术作业方面,教师要给予更多的帮助、指导,多给学生们一些肯定和希望,这样使学生们能够从心中感受到自己得到了尊重和重视,那么学生们的自信心也就提高上去,从而使学生们对学习美术充满兴趣,最终提高学生们的创新意识。
兴趣是最好的老师。学生只有对美术充满兴趣时,才能够有动力进行探索和创新。所以,小学美术教师在讲课过程中,要想办法激发学生们的求知欲,使学生们对学习美术感到好奇,从而在最大程度上提高学生学习美术的积极性和主动性。比如,小学美术教师可以充分利用多媒体技术,将一些绘画、剪贴、七巧板拼图等通过多媒体技术播放出来,使学生们以便欣赏、以便讨论,从而大大激发了学生学习美术的兴趣,进而促使学生们有了拿起笔画画的想法,然后教师再给与学生们正确的指导和鼓励,从而使学生们也能够创造出一幅幅生动、活泼、可爱的作品,进而更加激励学生去学习美术,这对培养学生们的创新意识起着非常重要的促进作用。
教师可以通过以某种图形作为基点,从而在最大程度上帮助学生们开拓思维,帮助学生们在实物和图形之间产生更多的想象力,这就是我们所说的美术发散思维。所以,教师就可以在讲课过程中通过该方法,引导学生们进行丰富的联想,从而使学生们能够描绘出跟实物相似,但同时又有一些不同的新形象。比如,小学美术教师可以在黑板上画一个“O”字母,然后让学生们展开丰富的想象力,充分发挥学生们的发散思维,画出与“O”相关的事物,如嘴、轮胎、眼睛,等等。由此我们可以看出,美术发散思维的最重要的价值在于,它能够促使学生们站在不同的角度去观察同一个物体,进而再用丰富的思维发散出更多的新形象,这就会在最大程度上使学生们的思维得到活跃,从而使学生们对学习美术充满兴趣,使学生们具有一定的创造力,不断培养学生们的创新意识。
人的灵感主要是指人们在参与每一项活动过程中,由于人的大脑皮层处于一种非常兴奋的高度,所以会产生一种非常特殊的心理状态,这就是灵感。由此可以看出,灵感能够激发出非常亢奋的情绪,同时更是具有一定创造力的精神状态。而小学生们在创作一个美术作品时,经常会为了某一个构想、意向以及其中的某一处、某一句话陷入苦思冥想过程中,常常是最终不能自拔。所以,在这种情况下,小学美术教师就要对学生们进行相应的指导,帮助学生们从这些苦恼中走出来,使学生们感到豁然开朗,进而促使学生们能够非常迅速地进入兴奋状态。因此,小学美术教师在讲课过程中应多鼓励学生们,多给学生们适当的指导,启发学生们,进而激发学生们的灵感,从而使学生们能够在苦思冥想中感到豁然开朗,创造出更多、更好的作品。
小学学生们在学习美术过程中经常会出现烦躁、苦思冥想的现象,这种情形下教师要给予学生们更多的指导和鼓励,使学生们能够从中解放出来,进而不断提高学生们的创造力和想象力,使学生们对学习美术充满兴趣,进而提高美术课堂的教学效率。
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首先,中国传统文化翻译使用大量的专业性词语。传统文化爱好者对英语文化新闻报道中的专有名词了若指掌。但是,不太了解中国传统文化的外国友人理解起来就有一定的障碍。如一些中国传统节日的翻译:LanternFestival(元宵节),而“lantern”本是“灯笼”的意思;TombSweepingDay(清明节),而“tomb-sweeping”本是“扫墓”的意思;DragonBoatFestival(端午节),而“dragon-boat”本是“龙舟”的意思。其次,中国传统文化翻译中有时牵涉到成语、谚语以及古诗词的翻译,此时要准确把握诗句的含义,不要一味地追求句式的对仗工整。再次,对中国传统文化的翻译是建立在了解其浓厚文化底蕴的基础上,不仅要了解它的来源、典故,还要了解它的传统民俗如食品、服装、节日、礼节、宗教等各个方面的知识。
生态教学指的是把课堂教学主体(教师、学生)和与课堂教学相关的教学内容、教学目标、教学过程、教学方法、教学评价等要素和环节在生态学的基本原理指引下有机联系、协调统一、相互促进。生态课堂各要素、环节中始终贯穿的是联系、发展、共生、平衡、开放等生态理念。在高校英语教学中,特别是培养学生传统文化翻译能力方面,需要教师的教授、讲解、分析、指导和学生的学习、讨论、总结、交流有机结合。
1.课堂教学内容应体现整体性和联系性生态理念认为,一切事物都处于一个整体之中,整体是部分存在的前提。在生态化大学英语课堂教学中,教师在设计教学内容时应以联系性和整体性作为指导。其一,教学内容要体现相邻知识系列的整合,要体现性质相近课程的整合。在传统文化翻译教学中,应恰当地融入英美文学、语言学、词汇学、修辞学等课程内容,体现与其他自然学科和社会学科的整合。其二,教学内容应充分体现学生与其生存环境的联系,重视对学生联系意识的培养。
2.课堂教学过程应体现教学主体间的互动交流传统文化翻译教学过程应贯彻动态性、联系性、发展性等生态理念。教学过程应重视师生间的互动交流。教师应充分考虑学生的主体性和主观能动性,多鼓励学生积极融入课堂教学之中。另外,还应增加学生之间的交流机会。学生之间的交流不仅能巩固知识,还能拓宽彼此视野,活跃课堂氛围,增加课堂的生机和活力。
3.课堂教学应采用多样化的教学方法传统文化翻译课堂教学方法应贯彻多样性、联系性等生态理念。一是文化背景知识介绍与导入。背景介绍主要指教师选择与课文内容相关的文化背景知识,在教课的同时讲解给学生,使他们对与课文内容有关的特定文化知识有所了解,形成一定的文化意识。进行不同的文化对比指教师在讲解本国文化知识的过程中侧重与外国文化内容进行联想和比较,使学生形成全球文化意识。二是传统文化中的内涵探索。教师可以在传统文化教学中介绍词汇的文化内涵,实现词汇与文化教学的结合。此外,教师应正确引导学生阅读一些传统文化方面的报纸、图书,并督促他们在阅读时认真积累有关文化背景、社会习俗等方面的知识。三是案例分析实践。教师可以根据特定的教学目的编写相关的案例,通过学生之间的讨论和辩论,培养学生的能力,包括分析技巧、思辨能力、翻译技巧和沟通能力。四是角色扮演与情景模仿。常见的有两种形式,一种是通过规定情景和目标完成角色扮演;另一种是在整个过程中,学生是任务完成的主体,教师的主要任务是指导学生运用所学的文化知识、翻译技巧、策略完成特定情景下的传统文化翻译任务。教师可以鼓励学生利用课外时间把课文改编成情景剧,充分地了解课文中出现的传统文化知识。五是适度地使用多媒体。传统文化翻译课堂的构建离不开丰富多样的教学资源,例如:播放视频,利用模型、照片和PPT等能够改变学生的学习思路,拓宽他们的视野,提高他们的学习效率。相关研究证明,学习文化翻译最好的方法就是体验文化氛围,促进对不同文化背景下人群的理解,进而增强学生的文化理解力。
4.课堂教学评价要多样化生态理念认为,多样性是生态系统存在的基础和前提。生态系统要充分发挥其作用,离不开各个部分多样性的存在。传统文化翻译课堂的生态化必须以多样化的教学评价作为重要条件。教育生态学要求教学评价应当有益于激发学生的学习兴趣,培养其独立的学习能力,实现其全面发展。例如:同学之间的评价可以用来提高学生的翻译能力,这种评价既能刺激学生的学习兴趣,也能训练其批判性思维能力。
文化知识和语言技能是提高传统文化翻译能力的基础。有效的学习策略能够提高学生的学习效率和效果,培养他们的自我学习能力。积极的态度是实现学生主动、可持续发展的内在要求。文化意识有助于学生正确地理解和使用语言。在培养学生传统文化翻译能力的过程中,如果这些能力目标得到重视,学生就能够掌握有效的学习策略,养成积极的人生态度,体验丰富多彩的文化,提高传统文化翻译能力。
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语文教师只有掌握了语言运用的艺术,才能在课堂上与学生形成良好的互动关系,这样才能够全面提高学生的语言表达能力,实现语文课堂教学的高效性,这也是语言艺术在小学语文课堂教学中的运用价值。小以下是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:艺术运用非语言优化语文课堂教学相关论文。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
【摘 要】在教学中,教师熟练掌握并灵活运用非语言教学手段,可以促使师生之间信息顺利沟通、情感及时交流,并对正在进行的教学活动进行必要的、恰当的调节,能够更加形象地传递知识信息,深化语言表达内容,从而激发学生丰富的想象力和学习热情,优化课堂教学质量。
【关键词】非语言;优化;大学语文;课堂教学
有关研究资料也表明:在课堂教学过程中,语言传播只占35%,而非语言传播却占65%,那么,何谓非语言?在大学语文课堂教学中,所谓非语言表达是教师在把握教材精髓、神韵的前提下,为组织教学、传播知识、承传文化、陶冶情感,运用手势、身体、动作、姿态、眼神及面部表情等非语言行为生动形象外化教学内容的一种教学辅助手段。那如何艺术运用非语言表达优化大学语文课堂教学呢,笔者就自身教学实践谈谈体会:
仪表常指人的外表,包括容貌、服饰、姿势等,在课堂教学中,教师仪表主要指服饰仪表。在学生眼里,教师不仅在内在素养对他们有着极大的示范性,其衣着、仪态、举止等外在形象对他们同样有着极大的引导性。教师与学生的初次见面时,学生最先感知的,不是其德、才、识,而是其外在的直观形象。郭沫若也说过:“衣裳是文化的表征,衣裳是思想的形象。”教师的仪表最直观的反映出教师的精神面貌,是一种“无言之言”,它通过教师的服饰、容貌等外在形式表现出来的情绪、气氛、趣味,潜移默化地作用于学生感情和思想,并对学生的学习兴趣、学习态度有着重要的影响。因为语文的教育功能,语文教师的仪表尤其要在整洁得体中见丰富的涵养,在朴素大方中见高雅的情趣,在庄重协调中见不俗的品位,从而使服饰成为完成教学任务的有用工具之一。有修养的语文教师常能使自己的外表、穿着与“灵魂工程师”这一社会角色、与大语文之美相谐和,使外表美与性格美相辉映,起到“山蕴玉而生辉,水怀珠而川媚“的艺术效果,增添教育的魅力。
语文教学的最高境界就是以情感人,按照心理学的观点,教师丰富情感的外化有机地与教学内容地水乳交融最易被学生接受;融合丰富情感的课堂教学最活跃、最生动、最形象、最直观、最引人、最使人产生想象、最能启迪人的心智、最能让人产生共鸣,这样的课堂叫人不会分心。因此,教师的情感在课堂教学中的表现既对教学气氛的营造、对教学内容的落实有着重要的决定作用,又对学生思维的积极发展和健康情感的形成起着潜移默化的标本作用。教师的情感外化为表情,或动情、或凝重、或伤感、或喜悦、或深有感触,只要适度自然,可以加深学生对大学语文中文本内容的理解与领悟。而在教学过程中,教师和颜悦色,或肯定的目光,或赞美的微笑,或关注的神色,或期待的表情,都能够表达深层的情感,使师生交流在一种融洽、和谐、轻松愉快的课堂气氛中,激发学生的情感体验,引起情感共鸣,使学生兴奋地、愉悦地、全身心投入学习,挖掘潜能,创新学习,表达个性化见解,从而提高课堂教学的时效性。
还有,经验丰富优秀的教师能让每个学生都感到自己处在教师的“注意圈”中,都觉得自己是教师的“注意中心”。如此,老师微笑的眼神使学生感到温暖;镇定的眼神使学生感到安全:信任的眼神使学生感到鼓舞;责备的眼神让违纪的学生感到负疚。当然,教师不仅要恰当运用自身的眼神,还要读懂学生的眼神,及时获取有效的反馈,调整教学进度和教学方法:学生上课注意力集中,对所教内容感兴趣时,眼神是闪光、兴奋的;不感兴趣眼神则是漫不经心的;疲劳时眼神是呆滞的;对老师的提问能回答时,眼神是直视老师,充满自信;不能回答或是拿不准,则不敢正视甚至会低下头去。优秀的教师能从学生的眼神语言中了解很多真实的东西,从而为改进教学、提高教学效果提供更多有利的条件。
三、举止从容大方
学生的注意力、兴趣、学习态度乃至学习方式都和教师的行为直接相关。教师的举止,主要是指教师的举动和动态的身体姿势,如手势、头姿、步态等。举止是一系列动作的总和,这些动作用来传达教师一定的心理状态和要交流的信息内容。语文课堂的美育功能,语文教师更讲究举止从容大方,给人以安详、轻柔、清雅、和悦的美感。从容,让学生感到踏实、安全;安详,使学生充满信心;轻柔,使学生感到亲切;大方,使学生感到舒适自然。
同样,教师的举止也要注意到学会运用适当的力度,适中的幅度以及准确的动作范围,使举止动作这一“语言”充分发挥其特有的教学艺术功能,适时地创设一些教学情境更好地为教学这个中心服务。研究举止“语言”,还能提高教师判别学生举止“语言”的能力,从学生的坐姿、站姿获得学生是否疲劳;是否在认真听讲:是否与老师对立情绪等重要信息,以便能更好地有的放矢,因材施教。
非语言境界在课堂教学中的开拓与运用,可探索的方面还很多,特别是在课堂教学艺术日益发展的今天,已越来越显出它的重要性。一堂课的成功与否,固然与文化知识传授的多与少有关,但更重要的是要看它能否带领学生一起进入一种崇高的美的意境,使他们不仅可以高质量、高速度、高效率地掌握教师传授的文化科学知识,而且更能从教师的教学艺术中,得到艺术的享受和丰富多彩的性情陶冶,进而焕发出一种不可抑制的创造能力。
艺术运用非语言优化语文课堂教学相关
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古希腊神话是古希腊人民智慧的结晶,它的想象力丰富多彩,激发了人们探求古希腊文明的欲望和热情。马克思曾经指出:“希腊的神话和史诗是发展的最完美的人类童年的产物,具有永久的魅力”。希腊神话是西方文化宝库里的璀璨明珠,对西方国家社会生活和人们的思维方式等各个方面均产生了极其深远的影响。它不但是西方文化的源泉,而且深深地根植于西方各国的语言文化之中。因此,对希腊神话的深入研究是了解和研究英语语言文化的关键。
英语语言文化有两个主要源头——古希腊罗马神话和圣经。英语的词汇从神话故事中吸取精髓,将神话故事中的词汇、神名、传说故事演化,由此大大地丰富了英语语言。希腊神话以其丰富的想象力、丰富的故事情节流传于世。
希腊神话对英语词汇的影响主要体现在词汇和习语方面,主要形式有直接引用、转义借用、派生新词和词根化。这方面的例子有:Flora是古希腊神话中的花神。她嫁给了西风之神Zephyr,婚后她的丈夫送给她一座满是奇花异草的花园。Flora和Zephyr生活幸福,感情甜蜜,每当他们一起在花园散步时,沿途的百花都会竟相开放。Flora 在现代英语里指代“植物”,衍生词有flower,flour,flourish,floral,florist等;神话中人间的王子那喀索斯(narcissus)是个长相英俊的美少年,经常喜欢独自一人在森林中漫步,他脱俗的外表和气质吸引了森林女神艾蔻(echo)的注意,渐渐的她爱上了这个王子,每天都跟随在王子的身后,但是却无法表白,因为她遭到了天后赫拉的诅咒终生只能重复别人话语的后三个字。艾蔻本是天后赫拉的侍女,活泼爱动且多嘴多舌,在赫拉和天神宙斯的婚礼上,因为艾蔻的原因导致宙斯在结婚誓言中没有说愿意一生一世只爱赫拉一人而遭到了赫拉的恨意,婚后的宙斯没有收敛拈花惹草的天性令赫拉头痛不已。传说赫拉在天宫中正为此郁闷,拨开云雾看到了人间森林中艾蔻跟踪那喀索斯的一幕,遂心生一计,惩罚艾蔻永远得不到所爱人的心。后来那喀索斯忍不住问艾蔻“你是谁呀?”,艾蔻只能不断的重复“是谁呀,是谁呀……”而遭到那喀索斯的讨厌,最后艾蔻抑郁而终,死后变成了山谷中的“回声”,而那喀索斯也被赫拉施以诅咒,爱上了自己水中的倒影,而变成了一株“水仙花”,后来的他的名字还引申为“自恋,自我陶醉”的意思;著名运动品牌耐克的商标也来源于希腊神话故事,耐克(Nike)是神话中的胜利女神,这一品牌正是源于女神名字的引申含义。
源自于希腊神话中的习语更是不胜枚举,如Pandora’s box(潘多拉的宝盒),天神普罗米修斯心地善良同情人间疾苦,不顾众神的反对,偷偷教给人类许多生存技巧和知识,后来甚至把圣火火种带到了人间造福千千万万的平民百姓。这让一直持反对意见的主神宙斯知道了,宙斯勃然大怒而对普罗米修斯和人类都施加惩罚。宙斯先是把普罗米修斯捆绑到了高加索山峰上,日夜折磨他的身心,每天白天都让鹰啄食他的内脏,然后又施加法术,让其夜晚再长出来,日以继夜。宙斯为了报复人类,亲自创造了只有美丽的外表但是却没有头脑思想又充满了好奇心的美女潘多拉,然后他又制造了装满邪恶、苦难、疾病、战争等的盒子让潘多拉带到人间,但是希望女神在盒底偷偷放入了希望的种子。宙斯让普罗米修斯的弟弟爱上了潘多拉而结婚,但是却在新婚之夜诱惑潘多拉打开了盒子,潘多拉惊慌失措连忙把盒子合上,却把希望留在了盒中,后来这个习语意为“灾难的根源”;Achilles’ heel(阿喀琉斯之踵),阿喀琉斯是神话中海洋女神忒提斯和人类的孩子,是半人半神的英雄,故事源于荷马史诗《伊利亚特》。因为是人和神的孩子,所以他不能像神那样可以永生,所以她的母亲忒提斯在他刚出生即把他浸入冥河河水中让儿子成为刀枪不入之身,但是由于脚后跟被母亲双手捏着而没有浸到河水,成为了他唯一的弱点,此事在特洛伊之战中被对手知道而丧命,后来这个习语意为“致命的弱点”;Apple of discord(不和的根源),故事源于不和女神艾瑞斯的一只金苹果,看不惯人们友好幸福的不和女神制作了一只写有“送给最美的女神”的金苹果,引起了天后赫拉,智慧女神雅典娜和爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒的争夺。由于各执一词,她们找到了特洛伊王子帕里斯裁决,为了能获得这“最美女神”的虚荣,她们各自向王子承诺地位、财富、智慧与美女,后来阿芙洛狄忒许诺的美女让王子最为动心。这就是希腊斯巴达王后海伦的被抢夺说导致的特洛伊之战,也是由“一只苹果”而引发的战争,因此apple of discord意思就是“不和的根源,发生纠纷的事端”。而故事中的美女海伦因为是这场战争的导火索也衍生出了“Helen of Troy”这一习语,意为“祸端,红颜祸水,倾城美人”;随着东西方文化的交融,在我国每年过西方“情人节”的人不在少数,人们都对那个胖嘟嘟精灵可爱的身后背着箭篓的小爱神丘比特印象深刻,可是要是问道这个节日的背后的故事恐怕了解的人就会寥寥无几了。丘比特是希腊神话中的私生子,他的身世也暗示了但是社会现状丑陋的一面。他的母亲是希腊神话中的爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒,她在罗马神话中的名字更为著名:维纳斯,他的父亲是战神马尔斯。阿芙洛狄忒与马尔斯都是宙斯的孩子,是兄妹关系,这一乱伦爱情也体现了希腊神话母体之一:乱伦。宙斯风流成性竟然爱上了自己的女儿——爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒,但却遭到了女儿的强烈反抗,激怒了宙斯,宙斯遂把她嫁给了天神中相貌最丑陋的神匠赫菲斯托斯。由于对生活的不满,产生了兄妹之间的不伦之恋而生下了盲孩丘比特,因为先天的缺陷,天神怜悯赋予其掌管爱情和婚姻的能力,天神赐予他一只铅箭一只金箭,当他把铅箭射向人们的时候相爱的人就会分开,当他把金箭射向人们的时候人们则会相爱。丘比特爱玩闹是个永远长不大的孩子,经常胡乱射箭,因此产生了习语Love is blind意思就是“爱情是盲目的”。
希腊神话不仅是希腊文学的摇篮,而且对欧美文学有着深远的影响。现代社会被广为流传的希腊神话或传说大多来源于希腊文学作品。古希腊大诗人荷马的两部伟大的史诗巨著:一部是《伊利亚特》,一部是《奥德赛》包括了绝大部分的希腊神话。分别描述了古希腊人和特洛伊人交战攻打伊利亚特城的经过和希腊军队在返回的途中所遇到的许多不可思议的见闻;闻名遐尔的古希腊三大悲剧诗人埃斯库罗斯、索福克勒斯和欧里庇得斯流传下来的 34 部悲剧中有 33 部都以神话为题材。这其中著名的作品有《被缚的普罗米修斯》、《俄狄浦斯王》和《美狄亚》;后世的诗人文学家用神话故事作为创作素材的更是恒河沙数,从乔叟到莎士比亚、弥尔顿、济慈、丁尼生、雪莱、拜伦、朗费罗、艾略特、庞德等人,无一不从神话中获得灵感,撷取思想和题材,创作出了许多不朽的名篇。譬如莎士比亚的《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》和长诗《维那斯与阿多尼斯》,弥尔顿的《失乐园》,雪莱的《解放了的普罗米修斯》,济慈的《阿波罗颂》、《希腊古瓮》,艾略特的《荒原》,庞德的《诗章》等等。《罗密欧与朱丽叶》、《老人与海》、《基督山伯爵》等现代作品以及极具有影响力的电影《泰坦尼克号》、《特洛伊》、《诸神之战》、《诸神之怒》、《爱丽丝梦游仙境》等也是以神话故事的母题为创作栏板。神话故事曲折丰富的故事在给读者美德享受的同时也激发了艺术家们丰富的想象力。《基督山伯爵》是发货著名作家大仲马的一部脍炙人口的作品,作者用艺术手法表现了希腊神话中报恩与复仇的主题。在故事中男主角埃德蒙·唐代斯是一名聪明善良的年轻大副,有理想有抱负,但同时也遭到了众多嫉妒他的爱情、事业的小人的算计,这些人有社会底层也有所谓的三层社会,他们互相勾结,暗算了少年得志的唐代斯使他无辜入狱,但在入狱后唐代斯机缘巧合结石了神父法里亚,法里亚博学多闻因为政治原因入狱,但是同时他又掌握着一个关于宝藏的惊天秘密。在神父的帮助下唐代斯分析出了自己被迫害的真相。神父在狱中把毕生所学都传授给了唐代斯,使他从外表到气质都发生了彻底的转变。后来在意外中,唐代斯得以离开暗无天日的牢狱并且得到了宝藏开始了他的报仇与报恩,在弘扬人性善良的同时揭露了所谓上层社会虚伪的嘴脸。最后他与爱人一起杨帆远航开拓新生活;《爱丽丝梦游仙境》是由英国作家查尔斯·路德维希·道奇森(Charles Lutwidge Dodgson)以笔名路易斯·卡罗(Lewis Carroll)出版的儿童文学作品。作品体现了希腊神话中的探险和冒险的主题。故事后来被改编成了广受欢迎的3D影片。在故事中主角爱丽丝偶然掉到了兔子洞中,开始一段奇妙的旅行,故事中的动物都能讲话都在做着不可思议的事情,爱丽丝同动物朋友们一起经历了奇妙的探险旅程,故事想象力丰富,成为了一代又一代孩子们在人生中最先接触的文学作品之一。后来故事还衍生出了医学词汇Alice Syndrome,意为爱丽丝综合症,其症状为病患通过自己的观察感觉事物忽大忽小,甚至产生时空扭曲等特殊视觉效果,多发于儿童时期。要充分了解英美文学,熟读希腊罗马神话是很有必要的。希腊神话以丰富的哲理和想象力在文学史上划下了绚烂的符号。
作为一名英语教师,本人在多年的教学中发现,在词汇的学习中,学生往往感觉枯燥乏味,而且易于遗忘,最后会对词汇的记忆产生烦躁情绪和抵触心理。如若在讲授过程中添加语言文化知识,不仅提升学习趣味性而且也加深了词汇学习的记忆,让学习者在知其所以然的情况下接受语言知识,促进跨文化交际。希腊神话的故事性、哲理性对英语语言文化,甚至西方语言文化都产生并将继续产生深远影响,对西方生活的方方面面的影响也是非常值得研究及深入探讨的,她深深的植根于西方文化的血液中,是每一名语言学习者不可逾越的文化源头。
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英汉两种语言的表达方式、语言习惯的不同,决定了它们所表达的相同事物之间存在着明显的差异性。然而,由于语言之间的相通性、相融性,也决定了不同语言的相同事物之间又在某些方面存在着必然的共同性。英、汉姓名的异同就是其差异性与共同性的具体体现之一,而在其中所蕴涵的深远的文化底蕴是值得我们回味与咀嚼的。本文就英汉姓名的文化内涵及其翻译方法进行粗浅探讨。
姓名的翻译要遵循两个原则:“名从主人原则”和“约定俗成原则”。“名从主人原则”是指在翻译姓名时,要以该姓名所在国语言的发音为准,而不管该姓名是直接从原文译出的,还是从其他文字转译的。换言之,就是译哪个国家的姓名就要以哪个国家的音为准。如Skolovski“斯克沃夫斯基”(波兰语发音),而不译作“斯科路夫斯基”(英语发音)。“约定俗成原则”是指有些姓名在长期的翻译实践中,已经有了固定的译法,就应该继续使用下去,即使有的不够妥帖,甚至错了,但因多年来已为人们所公认和熟悉,这样的译名也该继续沿用,无须另定译名。如英国著名作家George Bernard Shaw正确的汉译名应是“乔治·伯纳·萧”,但过去该作家的名字一直被译作“萧伯纳”,变成了一个典型的汉名,我们也只有错误地沿袭下去了。
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语言作为文化的组成部分和载体,“产生和演进是人类活动的结果(董广杰1999:14)。”多样性的语言存在于多样性的文化之中,这种文化的差异,就可以通过语言,尤其是语言表征结构的不同,而得以体现。本文就是分别从语言的各个表征层面——词语、句法、篇章,对汉英语言的差异做出分析,从而探究隐藏于语言差异之中的中西文化的不同,进一步通过分析这一差异,以期为母语是汉语的英语学习者的语言把握和跨文化交际能力的提高,提供一点借鉴和参考。
中国传统哲学以人为中心。不论是孔子的“天地之性,人为贵”还是孟子的“万物皆备于我”都强调人的首要性。中国人受传统哲学思想的影响,万物相生相克,有机联系。自古以来,汉民族就把自然与人看成是一个和谐而有机的整体,即所谓的“天人合一”。群体文化,是中国的人文精神的一贯主张,这一主张,自然引发了对集体观念,和社会人格的推崇,而反对个体人格及个人主义。含蓄,往往体现在中国人的说话与文章之中,经常是从很远的相关外围问题入手,先做充分的铺垫,之后才进入主题,这样才觉得够谦虚,够儒雅,不唐突、有余地。人的主体意识和重要性,在中国人的意识中是相当强的,而讲英语的西方民族从最初就把自然界置于与人对立的位置,使自然界成为被人所改造、征服的对象,西方思想中,人生来就是要认识自然、统治自然的,人是主宰世界的万物灵长。个人价值由可独立于群体的自我而体现,个人价值被置于整体之上。他们更加重视客体意识,思维的目标往往指向外界,探求外部世界对人的影响。另外,在中国,古代社会强调的是国家、皇权的权威;现代社会强调的是集体主义和集体的力量。而个人在社会中的地位、作用和意见一直是被弱化的。这种文化、思维方式的差异,反映到语言上就是汉语喜欢用人的词做主语,而英语则趋向于用非生物的词做主语。在语篇结构中,叙述视角喜欢用第一人称复数。
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生产力经济学是研究社会生产方式统一体中的生产力及其运动规律的经济学分支学科。 研究社会生产力发展运动规律的学科。 把人们对生产力认识的注意力从过去局限于生产力要素分解引导到从生产力要素的构成和结合上来把握生产力,从生产力要素不同的构成和结合方式上去求得最佳的经济效益的一门新兴科学。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS。仅供大家参考!
AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS(衰老和生产力经济学家)全文如下:
Abstract:-Economists' productivity over their careers and as measured by publication in leading journals declines very sharply with age. There is no difference by age in the probability that an article submitted to a leading journal will be accepted. Rates of declining productivity are no greater among the very top publishers than among others, and the probability of acceptance is increasingly related to the author's quality rather than the author's age.
It is well known that productivity declines with age in a wide range of activities. Lehman (1953) suggests an early peak in productivity in a variety of scientific and artistic endeavors, and Diamond (1986) documents the pattern for several scholarly pursuits. Levin and Stephan (1992) provide clear evidence that this decline exists even after careful attempts to account for individual and cohort differences. Fair (1994) finds declines in physical ability among elite runners, as does Lydall (1968,pp. 113 passim) in physical abilities of the population generally. In this study we examine productivity declines in our own field. The main new results arise from our use of two different types of information, the equivalent of household and establishment data, to study the stone field over essentially the same period of time. Section I discusses the general results on aging and productivity, whereas section II presents evidence of the importance of heterogeneity.
Using the American Economic Association (AEA) Directory of Members, we identified tenured economics faculty at 17 top research institutions and obtained the years of their Ph.D. degrees.[1] With the citation index of the Journal of Economic Literature we replicated portions of the curricala vitae of each of the 208 economists currently in the economics departments of those institutions who received Ph.D. degrees between 1959 and 1983.[2]
To measure productivity we construct three indexes, combining papers published in refereed journals. Prior research suggests that, at least in terms of salary determination, the returns from nonreferred publications are quite low Sauer (1988), so that we ignore such publications in calculating these measures. I1 weights an article by the journal where it appears based on citations to that journal, using values generated by Laband and Piette (1994). This index distinguishes strongly among journals. For example, the Journal of Political Economy has a weight of 59.1, whereas Economic Inquiry has a weight of 7.9. In constructing I1 we use the weights associated with the decade in which the articles were published. I2 distinguishes somewhat less among journals by assigning all articles in the nine "core" journals identified by Laband and Piette a value of 1, whereas all other journals are valued at 0.5.[3] Finally, I3 gives all papers a weight of 1. Coauthored articles were given half credit, consistent with Sauer's (1988) findings on the economic returns to coauthorship.[4]
We measure the change in productivity over the life cycle by the percentage change in the number of publications from 9-10 years past the Ph.D. to the periods 14-15 years and then 19-20 years after. For most of the elite economists the base period is equivalent (accounting for publication lags) to the time of tenure, when one might expect that incentives to produce are at a peak. Using two-year publication records at each point reduces the effects of noise in the performance measures. One might argue that still other scientific life-cycle mileposts (e.g., attaining a full professorship) should be accounted for too (and to some extent the 14-15-year point does this). But our main purpose is simply to provide detailed evidence on the relationship to age, and our data are not sufficient to infer the impact of every possible milepost.
Table 1 contains data on productivity loss by Ph.D. vintage measured by each of the three indexes. If we consider I1 and I2, the two indexes that take journal quality into account, the decline appears to be quite substantial. Between years 9-10 and 14-15 elite economists as a group lose 29 to 32% of their output. From years 9-10 to 19-20 they lose 54 to 60%. In other words, productivity losses are on the order of 5 % per year from the time of peak productivity. However, the losses do not appear to accelerate over these 10 years of the economists' work lives. The loss from year 10 to year 20 is approximately twice that from year 10 to year 15.
Another way to study the age-productivity relationship is to examine journals rather than individuals. The first row in each pair of years in table 2 shows the ages of authors of full-length refereed articles in several leading journals (American Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, and Quarterly Journal of Economics).[5] The median age of authors in the 1980s and 1990s was 36. Scholars over age 50 when their studies are published are a minute fraction of all authors in these journals. Creative economics at the highest levels is mainly for the young. That is as true in the 1990s as it was in the 1960s, although the age distribution of authors does seem to have shifted slightly rightward in the late 1970s.
The second row in each pair in table 2 shows the age distributions of random samples of the membership of the American Economic Association in years near those for which the authors' ages were tabulated.[6] The distributions are heavily concentrated between 36 and 50. Decadal variations reflect rapid expansion of American universities in the middle and late 1960s, stagnation in the 1970s and much of the 1980s, and a possible fragmentation of the profession in the 1980s as specialized associations expanded. A substantial percentage of AEA members is over age 50 implying that older economists are greatly underrepresented among authors in major journals relative to their presence among those who view themselves as part of the economics profession.[7]
Among the several groups of physical scientists analyzed by Levin and Stephan (1992) the decline of productivity (high-quality publishing) with age was very pronounced. McDowell's (1982) small samples of scholars in a variety of disciplines suggest less rapid declines in productivity with age (in publications unweighted by quality), with the sharpest declines and earliest peaks in the "hard" sciences, and later peaks among English professors and historians. The evidence from our two very different types of samples of economists and economics publishing that account for the quality of publications suggests that, for whatever reason, economics is at least as much a "young person's game" as are the physical sciences.
The evidence in section I documents the decline in productivity at the sample means. Information on the age-productivity relationship at the extremes of the sample is interesting in its own right and might help shed some light on the possible causes of the apparent decline in productivity with age. The simplest test compares productivity losses among the top early performers with that of the entire sample of economists at elite institutions. Among the top 10% of early producers the mean values of I1, I2, and I3 at year 20 were 64, 50, and 22%, respectively. These means are quite close to those listed for the entire sample in table 1. Thus on average early promise seems to be sustained in this sample. Of the 12 top researchers on whom we have 20 years of data, five were still among the top dozen producers at year 20.
These conclusions are confirmed when we examine the entire sample. For each index Ij, j = 1, 2, 3, we estimate b0 and b1 in
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Table 3 reports the parameter estimates. For all three indexes productivity in year 20 is positively and significantly related to productivity in year 10. There is also substantial productivity loss. The joint hypothesis that b0 = 1 and b1 = 0 (i.e., no productivity loss) is rejected (F-statistics of 134, 152, and 39, respectively). Productivity loss is least severe in I3, which weights all journals equally, regardless of quality.
If productivity losses were less among economists with high early productivity (high Ij,10), b1 would be negative. In fact, for two of the three indexes the estimated b1is effectively zero. We cannot reject the hypothesis of a linear relationship between late and early productivity. Only for I3 does it appear that productivity loss is higher for top early producers, and even here the effect is quite small. An economist in the top 10% of this sample at year 10 loses only an additional 0.5 (unweighted) paper compared to an average researcher in this sample at year 10. The very top producers in this elite sample keep on producing high-quality research, but at a slower rate. Those who were not at the top early in their careers slow down as rapidly as the top people, but their slowdown leads them to publish increasingly in lower quality outlets.
Another way of examining heterogeneity is to look at how authors of different quality free in the publication process conditional on their efforts. We obtained data on a random sample of initial submissions to a major general journal during a four-month period in 1991. (Some of the data were initially supplied by the journal's office for use in Hamermesh (1994).) Refereeing at this journal is double-blind, so that the chance that referees (though possibly not the editors) were affected by authors' reputations is reduced. The ages of the authors of these 313 papers are measured as of 1993 to account for the probable two-year average lag between the submission of a paper and its publication.
The simple fact in these additional data is that acceptance rates at this journal are remarkably constant by author's age. The probabilities of an article being accepted are 0.122, 0.114, and 0.123 in the three age groups 50, respectively.[8] On average there is no decline with age in the acceptance rate of papers submitted to this journal.[9] Probits on the acceptance of a submission that also included variables indicating whether the author was a member of the AEA, was in a top 20 department (as listed in Blank, 1991), was resident in North America, or was female, and the author's prior citation record yield an identical conclusion. The declining presence of older authors in top economics journals does not occur because older authors who keep submitting papers suffer higher rejection rates.
The probits included interaction terms between indicator variables for age and the extent of citations. (Low-cited economists were defined as those with fewer than 10 citations per year, well-cited with at least 10.) As figure 1 clearly shows, acceptance rates for each age group differ sharply by citation status. Comparing authors age 36-50 to those over 50, it is quite clear that the degree of heterogeneity increases with age. This appears to be less true in comparing the oldest to the youngest group, but that inference is due mainly to a very small sample. (Only six authors under age 36, the future superstars of the profession, were well cited.) The general tenor of the combined results from this sample is that the profession signals to less able scholars that their work no longer meets the profession's highest standards, and most of them respond by reducing their submissions to the highest quality journals.
We have followed the careers of economists and measured the demographic characteristics of publishers in leading journals. The evidence seems quite clear that publishing diminishes with age, especially publishing in leading journals, at rates as rapid as in the physical sciences. Indeed, remarkably few older people publish successfully in the scholarly outlets on which the profession places the highest value. As economists age, those who were the most productive early in their careers are among the few "survivors" still contributing to scholarship through the leading scholarly outlets.
Whether this relationship is due to natural declines in capacity or decreased incentives to produce is extremely difficult to discern. Unlike athletes, where it is likely that pure physical deterioration causes the reduction in productivity with age, among scholars even the fairly subtle facts that we have uncovered can be marshaled as support for each of these competing hypotheses. Without direct observation on how scholars' use of time changes as they age, we are unlikely to be able to distinguish between explanations of the declining ageproductivity relationship in science.
Berger, Mark, and Frank Scott, "Changes in U.S. and Southern Economics Deparment Rankings over Time," Growth and Change 21 (Summer 1990), 21-31.
Blank, Rebecca, "The Effects of Double-Blind versus Single-Blind Reviewing," American Economic Review 81 (Dec. 1991), 10411067.
Diamond, Arthur, "The Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Mathemati cians and Scientists," Journal of Gerontology 41 (1986), 520-525.
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