为您找到与论文化因素对商务翻译的影响相关的共200个结果:
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是外语翻译论文:从习语中看翻译和文化的关系以及影响文化的相关因素。具体内容如下,欢迎参考阅读:
The Relation between Translation and Culture from the Aspect of Idioms and the Factors which Influence the Culture
(从习语中看翻译和文化的关系以及影响文化的因素)
This thesis concludes my postgraduate study in Henan Normal University. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the professors in the College of Foreign Language, whose preciseness and strictness set a good example for me in the future academic career. I felt gratitude especially goes to my supervisor , Guo Yingzhen ,whose illuminating instruction and endless assistance have greatly conduced to the accomplishment of this thesis.
I’m also very grateful to the teachers who have taught me in various ways during the course of my study for the bachelor’s degree.Especially I would like to thank Professor Guo Yingzhen and other professors in the Faulty of Foreign institution who inspired me a lot.
Last but not least, I contribute this article to my dear family for their help during my college life.
翻译是一个复杂的过程,对于文化翻译尤其如此。一般来说,翻译涉及语言以及文化。译者应该知道外国文化以及文化自己的人民。此外,译者应连续比较两种文化之间的等价获得意义。翻译的主要任务是翻译源语言到目标语言。如何消除不同文化之间的语言障碍,如何传达源语言的意义的重点到底是不同国家的人。本文说明了不同文化的影响已经在翻译。文能从不同的方面分析:如思维的差异,心理学的文化之间的差异,不同的宗教、环境和生活环境不同的人,等等。
翻译是一个复杂的过程,它是关于文化翻译尤其如此。一般来说,翻译涉及语言以及文化。译者应该知道外国文化以及文化自己的人民。此外,译者应连续比较两种文化之间的等价获得意义。翻译的主要任务是翻译源语言到目标语言。如何消除不同文化之间的语言障碍,如何传达源语言的意义。本文说明了不同文化的影响已经在翻译。文能从不同的方面分析:如思维的差异,心理学的文化之间的差异,不同的宗教、环境和生活环境不同的人,等等。 关键字:翻译;文化意识;文化和思维;文化差别;习语
Translation is a complex process, especially when we translate the cultural text. Generally speaking ,translation involves language as well as culture. A translator should know foreign culture as well as the culture of his own people. Moreover ,a translator should make continuous comparisons between the two cultures for getting the equivalence meaning . The major task of translation is to translate the source language to the target language How to get rid of the language barrier between different culture, how to convey the meaning of the source language exactly is the focus of the people in different countries. This thesis illustrate the influences of different cultures have upon translation. Wen can analysis it from different aspects: such as the difference of thinking, the psychology of culture, the difference between different religion, the environment and living surroundings of different people, and so on.
Key Words: translation; the consciousness of culture; culture and thinking; cultural difference; idioms
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments I
Abstract III
Table of Contents IV
Introduction 1
PART ONE THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION AND CULTURE 2
1.1 The concept of translation 3
1.2 The concept of culture 5
PART TWO THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE CULTURE 7
2.1 Religion 7
2.2 The psychology of culture 8
2.3 The way of thinking 9
2.4 different ways of life 10
2.5 Geographical environment 14
2.6 Geographical environment 15
PART THREE BETWEEN CULTURE AND TRANSLATION 16
CONSLUSIONS 18
Bibliography 19
Introduction
This article contains the concept of translation and the concept of culture. The aim of translation is to making communication. Human’s social development and process need translation and human’s social development and progress should make communication between different nations, and during the process of communication, translation is indispensable. Translation, as an cultural phenomenon, thinking activity, related to the era and social background all in all. Translation is to render the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text. Translation is an art that involves the re-creation of a work in another language for readers with a different background. Culture is a very broad concept, to give it a rigorous and precise definition is a very difficult thing. Many philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists, historians and linguists have been trying to define the concept of culture from the perspective of the respective discipline. However, so far it still has not have a recognized and satisfactory definition. According to statistics, about "culture" at least, it has more than two hundred kinds of different definition. Broadly speaking, culture is a social phenomenon, which is the creation of the products for a long time. But it is also a kind of historical phenomenon and is the social history remains. Rather, culture refers to a state or national history, geography, local conditions and customs, traditions, lifestyles, literature and art, behavior standards, way of thinking, values, etc. When we translate something, the background of the culture and the background of history should be considered. The relation between culture and translation is very close in a great extent. In this context, we analysis this problem from different aspects: the way of thinking, the psychology of thinking, and the customs and habits in different nations. If the background of culture and history is ignored, the truly meaning of the context will be lost.
PART ONE THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION AND CULTURE
One linguist in China has said: “what is the most difficult thing during the process of translation , it is the differences between two cultures.” Nida has mentioned this too: “translation is the communication between two different cultures.” And we can not ignore the importance of the background of culture and the background of history if we want to translate a piece of text which contains the information about culture or some thing else. When translating some thing, mastering the knowledge of culture and history is indispensable. There are too much factors which can influence the culture of the source language.
Zhu Guangqian, one writer in modern times, thinks the associate meaning is the most difficult thing when we translate one language into another language. Because in the dictionary you can not find the truly meaning under a certain context.
But for literary study, it is one important factor you can not ignore. This requires us to know the custom and habit of the country we want to translate the language of it. Or we will find we do not know how to translate when we are given a piece of text. We can take a poem as an example. For example the poem:
《静夜思》 “窗前明月光,疑是地上霜。举头望明月。低头思故乡。”
Using English, we can not convey the essence of this poem without the background of old Chinese and the thought when the author write this poem. And there are so many versions of it. For instance:
(1) In the still of the night : I descry bright moonlight in front of my bed. I suspect it to be hoary frost on the floor. I watch the bright moon, as I tile back my head. Yearn, while stooping, for my home land more.
(2) A tranquil night: before my bed I see a silver light, I think the ground is covered with hoar frost. Raising my head, I find the full moon bright; and bowing down, in thought of home I’m lost. And there are lots of other versions translated by other translators. No matter which version , the emotion of the author must be considered, or they will ruin the essence of the poem. Tyler, one anthropologist in England, whose book primitive culture raises the concept of culture and describes it as “culture is a kind of complex abilities and habits, which includes knowledge, faith, art, moral, law and custom”. Thus we can know the wide coverage of culture, it is a complex system. Language, as a component of culture, reflect the phenomenon of a resourceful culture.
Translation is so difficult as language reflect the culture, which conveys to much cultural content and limited by culture. Once language entered the human’s life as a tool of communication, the problem of cultural connotation and the ability of express something will arise. This not only requires the translator master the knowledge of bilingual ability but multilingual ability, especially they must know the consciousness of two different culture, religious culture and the geographic features, the historical customs and traditions, the process of forming culture, etc. For these factors, the language cultures of different nations reflect their own national features and the background of the nation.
1.1 The concept of translation
There are many different definitions of translation, in The Oxford English Dictionary it means “to turn from one language into another ”. Or recreating according the original text. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language gives us the definition of translation is “to turn into one’s own or another language”. While the definition in Columbia Encyclopedia is that translation is the art of recomposing a work in another language without losing its original flavor. “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual in another language.(J.C.Catford, 1994)”. “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Eugene Nida, 1969)”. Translation is an old and young work, which come into exist since the old times and it becomes so hot in modern times.
Translation is the need of human’s development and progress. The concept of translation can be defined from two aspects: broad sense and narrow sense. Generalized translation refers to the language and the language, language variation and language variants, such as language and nonverbal code conversion which convey the basic information. Extension of the concept is quite broad, including his translation between different languages, translation between language variation, language and other symbols of the communication conversion, etc. The contents of translation rules only emphasizes the "basic information", does not emphasize "completely loyal". Some translation theorists put forward the understanding and translation theory, so the language and thinking are also included in the general translation.
Narrow sense translation is a linguistic activity, which is a kind of language to express the content of the faithfully expressed in another language. This definition emphasizes "translation is a language activity". The nature of translation determines the narrow sense ,which indicates that it is a human’s communicative approach in language communication, which emphasis on "one language to another language",which ruled out unification between different variants of translation between languages, which emphasis on "faithfully", avoiding the confusion of the translation and interpretation or rewrite. For example:"Sent someone to Coventry" refers to “reject someone”. The Coventry is a small town in UK, where the people hate soldiers very much, so when the soldier
was sent after Coventry, there will be people from the group. Look at this sentence “1 will be with you from the egg to apples”, if translated into "I will eat eggs and apples with you”.It sounds obviously puzzling. Be translation should "I will always be with you"? This is because "in the west, people always eat eggs, bread and drink milk for breakfast, and finally a dish always ended up with desserts including apple". Then, from the egg to the apple, from dawn to dusk, from the beginning until after the most. Again, such as, "fishery occupies an important position in the British Isles, so that the British fish (fish) is commonly used to represent all kinds of people, poor fish (poor), a strange fish (eccentric)". If the translation were translated into the big fish, small fish and poor fish, can every person can really understand the meaning of it, sometimes may even make a joke.
Translation is not simply a matter of seeking other words with similar meaning but of finding appropriate ways of saying things in another language. Different languages, may use different linguistic forms. Translation is also the social and psychological activities. One should be familiar with one’s own culture and be aware of the source language culture before the attempting to build any bridge with an alien culture that requires that its message be conveyed in anything but a alien way. That culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is “culture-bound”cultural words, proverbs and of course idiomatic expressions, whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the culture concerned. So we are called upon to do a cross - cultural translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the culture we are working with.
1.2 The concept of culture
In dictionary the definition of it is the quality in a person or society that arises from a concern for what is regarded as excellent in arts, letters, manners, scholarly pursuits, etc. Or a particular form or stage of civilization, as that of a certain nation or period. Or the development or improvement of the mind by education or training. Or the behaviors, beliefs or characteristics of a particular social, ethnic, or age group.
Culture is a very broad concept, to give it a rigorous and precise definition is a very difficult thing. Many philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists, historians and linguists have been trying to define the concept of culture from the perspective of the respective discipline.
However, so far it still did not have a recognized and satisfactory definition. According to statistics, about "culture" at least, it has more than two hundred kinds of different definitions. Broadly speaking, culture is a social phenomenon, is the creation of the products for a long time. But it is also a kind of historical phenomenon, is the social history remains. Rather, culture refers to a state or national history, geography, local conditions and customs, traditions, lifestyles, literature and art, behavior standards, way of thinking, values, etc.
About the relationship between translation and culture, Bassnett think the relation between culture and translation is the relation between the body and heart., culture is the body, language is the heart. As surgeons do surgery can't ignore the body surrounding tissue, the translator can not ignore the factors of culture when they translate some material. Hatmi and Mason believe that translation is a dynamic communicative process, the translator should not only understand two languages themselves,they should have two more cultural horizons, the translator should be acted as the role of the coordinator (mediator) between the original author and the reader .
Anyhow, the translators emphasize the cultural factors of translation scholars stressed. The translator should be familiar with two cultures, introduce the primitive cultural factors in the translation activity. Whether translators' understanding of the original is correctly or not, largely depends on his understanding of the culture, the success of translation, is mainly related to culture .
PART TWO THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE CULTURE
2.1 Religion
Everyone knows, Bible plays the role of the source in western’s life. Some statistic shows most Americans still have faith in the church. The British law protects religious freedom. Everyone has the freedom to believe any church, or not to believe any religion at all. There is no interference from the state or the community.
Most of the world’s religions have followers in Britain, but the majority of the British people believe Christianity. The first Christian church was established at Canterbury in 597. While the Chinese are under the influence of Confucian School in great extent. Though the Buddhism, which spreads very well in China, is till a polytheism. This is different from westerners’ religious faith.
In China, people have faith in the Buddhism and Taoism, so there phrase arises, such as “YuDi” “FoZu” and so on. While the westerners have faith in Christian, so there arises the word “God”. In Chinese, “谋事在人,成事在天”, In English there are two different versions, (1) “man propose, heaven disposes” or “man dropose , god disposes”. Their difference lies in the different translations of the word “天”。“天”has the strong color of Buddhism and Taoism. While the word of “God” has the oblivious color of Christian. The latter translation version is easy to understand and accept for the westerners, but can not convey the essence of connotation of it in China. The religion has great influence on English, it expresses in such phrases as “It is in God’s hand”(听天由命), etc.
When translation, it is very necessary for us to master the basic knowledge of religion. We can take the example of “临时抱佛脚”. If we translated it into “to embrace Buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need”. It is very eccentric for the westerner. Why we need to embrace the Buddha’s feet sometimes? What is the use of this strange act? If we can deal it a little, it is another meaning for the westerner. We can translate it into “to embrace Buddha’s feet in one’s hour of need ----seek help at the last moment”. So the westerners always say “God” “Holy” “Goddess” etc. While we Chinese choose to take the Heaven as our faith. This truly gives us another example of the different religious belief.
Religious culture is an important part of human culture, which is made up of ethnic culture which is formed by the religious beliefs, awareness, etc. Fang Wenhua thinks different religion penetration and melt in their own language to express, only a deep understanding of many of the differences between Chinese and western culture, unique cultural connotation of understanding language, to avoid wrong translation, mistranslation, making the translation really play the role of cultural exchange. Chinese culture is extensive and profound, has a long history, in China's traditional culture, owing to the popularity of Taoism and Buddhism, there are many "the jade emperor, the view sound, bodhisattva." terms. Westerners believed in Christ thought that god created everything, many religious "god, the bible, the church, nuns," and other words.
2.2 The psychology of culture
As different nations use different language, and their history and culture are different too. So during the process of development in every nation, they formed their own national features owning to the unique historical background and cultural background. It is very important for the forming of a nation’s psychology state. The difference of history and culture mainly reflect on the aspect of some history stories , many taboos and preferences, and so on. We can take the number of “9” for an example, the number has special meaning in the culture of China, no matter in old times or in modern times, for it stands of the high position-- “jiujiu gui yi--the meaning of ruling the world”. While most Chinese do not like the number of “4”, for the pronunciation of it is similar with the pronunciation of “死--which means death”, especially in the number Of telephone, most people do not like the number “4” ended as the ending. As for another number “8”, which have the similar pronunciation of “发--which means fortune”.
While in the eyes of the westerners’, “4” “8” “9” is only the common signs, which do not has special meaning. As we all known, “13” is a bad number for the westerners, which means bad luck. So the number are absent in the daily life. Especially, the number of seat, the number of the floor, and so on. But in China, this number do not have this kind of meaning. For the cultural connotation of these nonlingual words represent, the translators can understand and translate them well after knowing the historical culture of every nation.
When talking about Chinese culture, people always come to the word “龙”. Because in old times, the emperor always describethemselves as “龙”,which is a symbol of “God”, which can consolidate their power, nation and land. But for the westerner, “龙” is another symbol, “a large fierce fabulous animal with wings and a long tail , a crested head and big claws, that can break the outfire ”. So it is very strange for the westerner to see the meaning the dragon. And they will not wish their children to be the Dragon. So to avoid misunderstanding the word of dragon, we can translate the phrase “望子成龙” into “long to see one’s child succeed in life ”.
2.3 The way of thinking
Different district, different physiology, different psychology and the difference of culture will form different ways of thinking, especially the difference of culture decides the way of thinking in great extent. When translating, the translator must know the the barrier of the different culture and overcome it , then grasp the two different thinking moods. The Chinese will take a whole thing as a organic part. While the westerner are good at logical thinking, they will take the whole thing into different part. The difference between Chinese doctor and western doctor can illustrate this point very well. Chinese doctor emphasize the measures according the whole symptom. While the western doctor emphasize headache is an illness, foot ache is another disease, they will separate the whole thing into different part.
2.4 different ways of life
Different ways of life influence on translation: from the history tradition and the real life, China has a long history of farming life, which formed the “farming”in Chinese is traditional, and is associated with the large number of idioms. If we meet the Chinese,they will ask "eat?" And according to the tradition of western English habits. They often talk about the weather.So we can only translate it into “how do you do” or “hello”.
Three different influence of custom on translation in social life and cultural exchange, different countries will be formed in the process of its peculiar customs. The differences of English custom is various, such as in the attitude to the dog, the dog in Chinese is commonly used to describe the bad things, such as "evil, a coward, bailiffs, brutal and cold blooded" etc.The British people usually use “dog” to express good meanings. however, they often be used to describe people, such as "lucky dog" (lucky), "top dog" (VIPs), "love me, love my dog" (love me, love my dog). Again, such as, "dead and marriage", if we translate them into "weddings, funerals," is inappropriate. Chinese symbol red festival, when they get married in red color, and the funeral to wear white, so the Chinese idiomatic "red" said "marriage", "white" means "death". Westerners, however, think the white represents purity, loyalty, bride wears white,when there is a funeral they should wear black. So "funerals" is not accurate for people in British or American. And there is another example, when talked about dragon. British people often takes it as an bad word. They often refer it as “evil” or something related. But for our Chinese, we thinks that dragon is our ancestors. So they are totally different between our Chinese and the English.
Historical allusions in different countries.They have different influence on translation between English and Chinese.Two languages have been formed by historical allusion, language acquisition. These idioms simple structure, profound, often come from a single literal meaning to understand and translation. Such as "meet one's Waterloo” means totally failure for somebody in western countries.But in Chinese we cannot understand this phrase without the background it concerned.And there is another example.”一个臭皮匠,顶个诸葛亮”, they can translate it into “three cobblers equal to Zhu Geliang -----the master mind”. When we translate it, if we don’t consider the background in China, the westerners even don’t know what is Zhu Geliang. Let alone the truly meaning of the sentence. In western countries , they don’t know the truly meaning of the sentence for the deficiency of cultural background. However, in China, even a little child can understand it with his mind abstracted.
Chinese and English, two languages are produced in different cultural background. This will lead to two languages existed in the expression of difference it the views of people. To deal with the culture differences during the process of translation, we should focus my mind on the two cultures, comprehension ability. We should also improve our cultural accomplishment. To overcome the differences between Chinese and western culture in the translating process into obstacles, make the translation vivid as possible.
Understanding the meaning of the original text while translating is not simply a matter of understanding. The language is a component of the culture, which is affected and limited by culture. In the course of translating, whether the translator has the right understanding or not, depends on his knowledge of the relevant culture to a great extent. For a translator, without the comparison of two culture, whether he can understanding the spoken and written language well is unimaginable. That is why we say, “learning a language is kind of learning the culture and habit of the country where the language is spoken”. So long as we study the culture behind the language during the process of studying a language, a large amount of culture information can be transmitted equivalently. These are comparatively simpler in translation.
Besides similarities, there are also many differences between two cultures, which from the most difficult part in translation. We must keep in mind that translation is a cross - cultural activities. When we face an original text, it may be well written, attractive, tempting and aesthetic. But if one does not know the difference between two cultures, it would be rather difficult for him to achieve the same effect in the translated work.
National culture and long history and develops with the time. Although they are very short sometimes ,their significance is far-reaching. However the thinking modes of different notions are very different sometimes . We need to make some conversion while translating the idioms.
路遥知马力,日久见人心。 A long road tests a horse’s strength and a long task proves a man’s heart
飞流直下三千尺,疑是银河落九天。Down it cascades a sheer thousand feet, as if the Silver River were falling from Heaven!
树倒猢狲散。 Once the tree falls, the monkeys on it will flee helter-skelter.
穷棒子闹翻身,是八仙过海,各显其能? The way we poor folks try to emancipate ourselves is just like the way the Eight Fairies crossed the sea each displaying his own talent......Note: The Eight Fairies are the eight immortals of Taoism in Chinese folklore.
成也萧何败萧何 To meet one’s Waterloo
逼上梁山 Watergate Scandal
杀手锏 Lame duck
一个和尚挑水吃,两个和尚抬水吃,三个和尚没水吃。 One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.
杀鸡取卵 Kill the goose to get the eggs.
鱼米之乡 Milk and honey
青出于蓝而胜于蓝 The master is surpassed by the apprentice.
贪字变贫字 Grab all, lose all.
人不可貌相 You can not judge a horse by its saddle.
As for the ways of cohesion, English will choose hypotaxis, namely in the syntactic form using the connection words connect sentences or causes; While Chinese intentions Darataxis, which depends on the sense of cohesion rather than relying on connectors. English grammar is quite closely, pay attention to hypotaxis, precise shape. Each sentence, paragraph or paragraphs usually consists of some function words and some specific phrases, clauses. These features can represent different function or a word or phrase ideas, such as cause and effect, comparison, concessions, conditions, twist, etc. Each clause in complex sentences, distinct, clause must be guided by the subordinator. In the compound, coordinate clauses are usually connected by some punctuation marks. As we all know, Chinese is heavy parataxis, regardless of primary and secondary relationship between a lot of sentences or clauses, only through meaning for cohesion. There are some sentences which we can compare them with each other.
It is so cool that we decide to go out for a walk. 天气凉爽,我们决定出去散步。
Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成。
The difference between the overall thinking and individual thinking. Chinese culture emphasizes the overall thinking pattern no matter in old times or modern times .Harmony and unity is good embodiment of thought.
So, In Chinese as the main body of the behavior subject, often omitted, is often said that without the main clause. But western culture is different, which emphasizes the opposition of subject and object. In the embodiment of the language is what is called a subject-predicate two points. In addition to the imperative sentence, every English sentence should have a subject, or the sentence is incomplete. In the english-Chinese translation, therefore, for many Chinese sentences we need to according to the specific context for them to add the subject. There are an example of it: “眼看天就要下雨,又没有带雨伞,都很关着急,真不知该去哪里。 It is raining; we do not have no umbrella with us. We are all worried about it, because we do not know where to go at the moment ”.
We can see that the original words of description is not a word which can be made as the subject. But here, according to the context and context of the specific environment, when we translated into English, adding “ it “ and “ we “ as different clauses of the subject, so it make the state of the person’s mind be in harmony with the environment at the time, and totally reached the realm of "harmony between man and nature". After added the subject, which is in conformity with the English sentence --it must have a subject requirements. Also, it is in line with the European and American culture known as the separation of the subjective and the objective mode of thinking. The whole structure of the target language is complete and distinct.
2.5 Geographical environment
As we all known, England is an island country, more than one thousand kilometers from south to north and 500 kilometers from east to west. Its coastline runs about ten thousand kilometers, making it one of the countries with a long coastline in the world. In Britain no place is over kilometers away from the sea. British people are sensitive to privacy and they do not like to talk of personal affairs such as money, wage, age, or wealth, but they are fond of discussing the weather. Sometimes they even argue heatedly over what the weather is going to be like. Perhaps it is nothing more than a habit.
The weather in England is changeable, even the weather is raining at most times. Britain has a maritime climate and changeable weather. So the people in England have special feelings about the weather and then they want to talk the weather when they meet each other. There are some examples: “a lovely day. Is not it ?” “What is the weather like today?” and so on. This is the common phrase they use when they meet. And England is a typical maritime nation. So there are a lot of idioms and phrase about the ocean. While the land of China is interior. The resource of culture have relation with the farmland and the Chinese have a special feeling with the land. For example: we can express spend money very quickly and without limited. In English, we can say “spend money like water”. And in Chinese, we can say “挥金如土”.
2.6 Geographical environment
Geographical environment has great influence on climate. At the same time, geographical environment have great influence on the the language or clause used by the local people. For example: in Chinese culture, "dong feng" is "spring wind", summer often and intense heat relates in together, hot "scorching sun" is often used to describe the summer. And British in the western hemisphere, north temperate zone, oceanic climate, report message but is west wind in spring, a famous poet Shelley's "ode to west wind" is the song of spring. The British summer is a pleasant season, commonly used "lovely, gentle, beautiful" to describe.
PART THREE THE RELATION BETWEEN CULTURE AND TRANSLATION
Different nationalities in greeting, appellation, thanks, compliments, apologies, farewell, phone calls etc are different. Customs is with corresponding national characteristics. As Chinese people meet each other , they often say "hello" to each other or "where are you going?" , "what do you do?" or "have a meal?" and so on. In Chinese culture, these words do not have any meaning. these words is just a courtesy meet, a way of greeting. For westerners, however, it is sensitive to this kind of problem. Because in their view, it is a purely private matter, which can't be casually asked. Meet greeting, like that in the western world should do according to the specific circumstances corresponding culture conversion, convert in English idioms, such as "Hi!" , "Good morning" or "How are you?.
In terms of title, and allegations of a concepts in different languages have different application scopes. This is also decided by beauty, such as different cultural background. Because Chinese pay attention to the concept of family and the system of family is very big, so the system becomes more developed to distinguish different relations between family members. Like “sister”, “brother” and “sister” and “brother”, they are distinguished clearly between the lines. In western countries because of focus on so-called nuclear family, so family members is not too much and appellation vocabulary is not rich. Sister and brother in English can be respectively used to say sister and brother and sister and brother. So many Chinese feel they don't understand about this appellation very much. In many cases, the translation of this kind of text must be quoted so as not to cause misunderstanding. Also Cousins is also not the same in both English and Chinese kinship terms, all require that we should be careful in Chinese and foreign communication, so that communication can be re-scheduled accordingly.
To sum up, a kind of language is the product of this kind of specific culture. In cross-cultural communication, the "cultural conflict" (culture shock) phenomenon is inevitable. However, if you want to overcome these conflicts , it may be very difficult in a short time. Because taking a language from the surface meaning to all of the ingredients in the symbolic meaning by translation all accurate expression is almost impossible. Translation of translatability is restricted by many factors, like differences in people's thinking, the different culture and regional culture differences and so on. In the process of translation, therefore, how to deal with the cultural factors becomes the translator is very important task. As a responsible for the translator, the translator should be able to accurately grasp the cultural meanings of the original, if necessary, to the original because of the cultural background in translation properly, for easy to make readers misunderstanding in the alien culture concept to make the necessary clarification, which can help the readers across the cultural divide, to achieve the best understanding.
CONSLUSIONS
All in all, any translation can not be separated from culture. Culture is a complex collection of experiences, which includes history, social structure, religion,traditional customs and everyday usage. This is difficult to comprehend completely. Especially in relation to a target language, one important question is whether the translation will have any readership at all, as the specific reality being portrayed is not quite familiar to the reader. Whether the translator can express the original meaning or not depends on his understanding of the relevant culture to a great extent. For a translator, it is impossible for him to do so if he does not possess the knowledge of the two cultures. Cultural transfer requires a multi - pronged approach. It is concerned with the author’s relationship to his subject matter and with the author’s relationship to his reader. These should be reflected in a good translation. The translator has to transmit this special cultural quality from one language to another. So we should pay much attention to the relationship between culture and translation when we are doing translation.
“Translation and Culture”, Translation Journal C. Thriveni, Volume 6, No. 1 January 2002
Translation Journal Gabe Bokor, Volume 5, No. 4 October 2001, “Translation and International Politics”,
Translation Journal Mathieu Guidere, Volume 5, No. 1 January 2001, “Translation Practices in International Advertising”,
Translation Journal Nida, E. A. “language, Culture, and Translation”
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胡庚申. 翻译与跨文化交流. 嬗变与解读上海外语出版社. 25-26.
李青新. 英汉汉英翻译教程. 翻译技巧与误区评析. 北京出版社. 45-47
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孙迎春. 汉英双向翻译学译林. 济南山东大学出版社. 2001: 74-76.
王逢鑫. 英汉文化. 北京大学出版社. 2004: 48--69.
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商务英语的作用是在国际商务中不同国家的双方进行交流的通用语言,比起一般的英语,更加严肃也更加规范。它是一种功能性的语言,对比一般的英语,官方性的应用更为广泛一些,特别是在国际商务交流上,商务英语的应用显得尤为重要,所以对翻译的要求就更严格。由于中西方历史和文化的截然不同,导致中外的英语应用是存在着一些细微差别的。不注重这些差别的话,不仅不利于双方的交流,也是对对方文化的不尊重。所以我们有必要对中外的文化差异进行探究,讨论文化语境对商务英语翻译实践的影响。
语境,顾名思义指的就是语言环境,是指在不同的情形下对同样的事物进行表达,内容是不尽相同的,语言的产生也是依存于一定的语言环境,不同的环境下,语言的却别比较明显。通常情况下语境分为三类:语言整体的结构和逻辑、进行语言交流时所处的时间地点和交流双方文化背景的差异。后者就是我们这里要探讨的文化语境。近些年来,国际交流日益频繁,国际商务活动也越来越多,此时,中外的交流就愈加频繁。如果不能对西方的文化背景和社会生活习惯进行了解,很可能会影响交流的效果和商务活动的成败。当然,除中国之外世界上的190多个国家与地区的文化也是不尽相同的,我们本文谈的主要是以英美语言为母语的英美系国家。
商务英语通俗来说就是在商务情境下所要用到的英语,其本质还是英语,跟英语的一般特性并没有太大的差异。它不能够脱离了英语而存在,唯一的不同是比起普通的英语内容更多、要求更严格。它具有以下的特点:第一,有很多的专用词汇。一般场合的英语用不到那么多的专业词汇,很多英语专业词汇仅出现在各种专业的场景之中。商务英语就有很多专有的商务词汇;第二,语气更为正式。商务英语中,口语和俚语虽说不是禁忌,但是也是在交流中应当避免的;第三,要有确定性。商务英语服务于商务活动,所表达出的东西不能够是模糊的,而必须是清晰的、明确的。
文化语境的不同,对于商务英语的翻译能够产生极大的影响,产生的影响极其原因如下文:
第一,空间地理上的差异,不同国家所处的地理位置不同,导致了翻译的不同。举一个最简单的例子,英国和中国的地理位置不同,所以导致了气候也会有很大的差异。所以在中国和英国的表达中,不同方向的风所带来的含义是不同的。中英的海风分别是从东边海洋和西边海洋吹来,这就导致了中英对于温暖的风的风向表达是截然相反的,所以中国有东风品牌,英国有西风品牌。
第二,由于历史因素的影响,中西方在语言表达方式上有巨大的差异。中国人讲求的是委婉,无论是语言表达还是求人帮忙,都要做好很长的铺垫;而英美国家则讲求直截了当,开门见山,不喜欢遮遮掩掩和欲擒故纵。这样的文化背景也造就了中西方的风格是不同的,中国人更注重情感,而西方人更注重利益和效果。所以在翻译中西方国家常常将商务活动的目的、要求放在文件的前部,而中文往往需要先论述可行性,再进行具体建议和要求的书写。
第三,自古以来,在中国人眼中,集体的利益都是要高于个人利益的。当然,在封建王朝,至高无上的是皇帝的意志,但是皇帝是一个群体的代表,皇帝代表的还是地主阶级整体的意志,一旦对整个地主阶级的利益有损害,皇帝的意志也会遭到人们的抵抗。在英语翻译中最直接的例子就是关于信件的地址,中国人自上而下,国家-省市-县区-街道-个人,而西方人恰好相反。
第四,由于历史的积淀,导致中西方对于某些词汇的理解不同。举例来说,关于老和old,在中国,老不仅不是贬义词,还透着一股亲近,例如叫老张、老王,就显得亲热;而在西方,old一词中内含的却是过时、不能与时俱进等等含义。另外,中西国家对于颜色偏好是不同的。例如黑色,在中国一般表示的是一种悲哀的气氛,而在西方black则是邪恶的象征。如果在翻译的时候不注意这一点的话,极容易引起对方的反感。
第五,中西文化语境下,对于同样词汇表达的隐喻含义是截然不同的。例如最常见的就是狗和dog,狗在中国人心目中除了是忠诚的象征之外,运用的具体词汇中却有贬义的色彩,例如狗仗人势、狼心狗肺等等;而在英美国家中,狗就是忠诚的代表,不存在贬义的情况甚至还将幸运的人称之为lucky dog。再比如最常见的数字背后带来的隐喻也是不同的。对于中国人来说,4与死谐音,8与发谐音,18往往跟十八层地狱相联系,所以中国人对待这几个数字的态度是不同的,虽然这是迷信的思想在作祟,但是毕竟也是中华文化中的一部分;而在西方,因为耶稣的第13门徒犹大背叛了耶稣,所以西方人对于13特别反感。那么在翻译的时候就应当特别注意这一点。
基于上述文化语境对于商务英语的重要影响,在商务英语的翻译中应当特别注意下面的几个要点:
首先,在商品和商标翻译上,应当充分考虑到上面所说的影响,避免一些避讳事物的出现。例如,对于中国商品带有13等数字的,应当以音译或者其他的译法来避免该数字在国外出现,否则将会极大影响西方人对该商品的认同。要适当迎合对方的一些习惯。当然,这个前提是不能够损害国家的利益和集体的利益,不能够拿中国的形象去刻意迎合。例如,东风品牌在中国是非常重要的汽车业的象征,在翻译的时候不必照顾西方人的习惯翻译为西风。但是若是中国的某商品品牌为南风的话,为了迎合英国人的习惯,大可以翻译为西风。当然,这个要在不侵犯对方商标权的情况下进行。
其次,翻译过程要合理的运用一些技巧。例如直译、音译或者移译。直译是说在某些情况下其词汇内涵的隐喻在我们看来或者在对方看来是不恰当的,那么此时就应当忽视其隐喻的内容,直接按字面意思译出即可。音译则是指根据发音来翻译。翻译者往往忽视音译,其实音译运用恰当,能够产生意想不到的效果。例如,Coca Cola在中国翻译为可口可乐,这就是根据读音来翻译,但是效果却极好,这是因为翻译者既关注了音译,又兼顾到了产品的内涵,可口和可乐都是直接表达商品的特性的好的翻译。移译则是通过对中西方文化的对比和研究,进行一些技巧上的变化,例如,英文中的black tea并不是指的中文中的黑茶,而是表示红茶。
商务英语以其功能性和实用性在英语应用中占有十分重要的位置。它不仅仅具有中外两国的人进行交流的属性,还具有商业交流和谈判的性质,所以就更加重要。语言的学习不能够仅学习语言本身,那样的语言是僵化的也很容易在交流过程中出现一些自己意识不到的错误,从而影响双方的商务活动。双方对于英语的理解和应用不同是基于文化语境不同的,所以翻译者不仅应当有牢固扎实的英语基础和翻译功底,还要潜心研究各国的文化背景,以期达到在翻译中更为准确,在商务活动中更好表达的目的。
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摘要文化渗透于社会生活的各个方面,英文翻译不可避免地受到文化因素的影响。英文翻译不仅是一种语言翻译,更是一种文化翻译。翻译过程中的文化因素:思维方式、习俗文化和宗教信仰等,一直是翻译工作者关注的问题。只有深刻把握不同文化背景知识、不同民族思维模式的差异,以及英汉两种语言风格的异同,才能进行成功的翻译交际。
关键词:文化因素 翻译 影响
近些年来,翻译中的文化问题越来越受到人们的关注。人们重视翻译中的文化问题,源于对背景知识的作用的正确认识。在翻译实践中,由于文化不解与误解导致误译和错译的例子屡见不鲜。于是文化因素对英文翻译的影响,便成了众多学者的研究对象。正如美国著名翻译理论家尤金·奈达所说:“就真正成功的翻译而言,译者的双文化(bicultural)功底甚至比双语(bilingualism)功底更重要,因为词语只有在起作用的文化语境中才有意义。”翻译并不像许多人想象得那么容易,深层次的思想意识方面的“文化鸿沟”时常难以逾越。由此可见,文化因素在翻译中占有重要的地位。
一 翻译与文化释义
1 翻译与文化的内涵
翻译的诞生给说不同语言的人们带来了很大的方便,它是人们彼此之间进行信息交流的桥梁。所谓翻译,就是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动,是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具,它的目的是要促进本语言社会的政治、经济和社会文化进步。
何谓文化?英国学者泰勒(E.B Tylor,1871)给“文化”下的定义是:“所谓文化或文明,即知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及其它作为社会成员的人们能够获得的包括一切能力和习惯在内的复合性整体。”文化并不是抽象的,它是我们所感知的一切。人类以自己的情感、技能和智慧创造了自己的文化,更新了自己的文化。不同民族语言不同、文化各异,但人类的能力本质是相同的。因为人类所创造的文化在深层意义上反映了人类的共同能力。各民族的文化都有同一性,不同国家、不同民族活动的多样性和观念的多元化使其文化内容和形式出现多样性,这就是文化差异的渊源。翻译则是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动,是两个语言社会之间的交际过程和交际工具。
2 翻译与文化的关系
任何翻译都离不开文化,许多有经验的译者或翻译研究者都比较注意文化与翻译的关系。谭载喜说:“翻译中对原文意思的理解,远远不是单纯的语言理解问题。语言是文化的组成部分,它受着文化的影响和制约。在翻译过程中,译者对某段文字理解的正确与否,在很大程度上取决于他对有关文化的了解。对于译者来说,没有两种文化的对比知识,就无从谈起对语言文字的正确理解与表达。”
在翻译过程中,表面上存在着中外文字表达上的差异,仅仅从文字技巧上来着手是难以解决含义差异的,必须要从文化背景上来处理中外文字在表达内涵上的差异,因为这些差异源自生活上的不同而形成。文化背景对翻译是极其重要的,缺乏文化元素的译文等于缺乏了灵性的翻译。所谓“文化元素”其实也包括了译者对原文化背景、译文、译文文化背景、原文作者的气质和风格的了解、译者的气质和风格的混合体。
3 语言和文化的关系
瑞士语言学家Saussure把语言看成是社会现象。他认为,语言史和文化史总是交织在一起,彼此之间相互联系;民族的风俗习惯常反映在语言之中,阐明了不同民族间不同的语言与文化差异。美国语言学家Sapir认为,“语言不能离开文化而存在”。“语言不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景,而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式……应该指出,语言和文化互相影响、互相作用;理解语言必须了解语言。”可见,不了解目的语的文化,便无法正确理解和运用该目的语,更无法进行沟通。当今,不同文化背景下的交流日益增多,密切的跨文化交流成了当今世界的主流,这就要求我们在了解相关国家的语言的同时,还必须要了解他们的文化知识,做到二者同步发展。
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二 文化因素对英文翻译的影响
1 思维方式方面
翻译是语言的翻译,而语言是思维的外壳。迥然不同的自然、社会条件使人们在思维习惯和表达方式上自然不同。西方民族惯用抽象性、由一到多的分析型思维方式,句子常以主语和谓语为核心,统摄多个短语和从句,由主到次,但形散而意合。而东方民族的综合思维方式,使得中国人注重整体和谐,强调“从多到一”的思维方式;句子结构上以动词为中心,以时间顺序为逻辑顺序,横向铺叙,层层推进,归纳总结,形成“流水型”的句式结构。英汉民族熟悉和思维方式的不同决定了其在翻译过程中句式选择、遣词造句、词句省略等的不同。例如:
“It had been a fine,golden autumn,a lovely farewell to those who would lose thEir youth,and some of them thEIr lives,before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall.”
如直接译成:
“那是一个夸姣的金秋,在离别了那些可能丢失他们的青春甚至生命的人之后,树叶才慢慢地落下。”
这种翻译显然受到了语言形式的拘束,译句结构混乱、呆板、没有条理性,且语言支离破碎。如将译文译成:
“那是个天色晴朗、金黄可爱的秋天,夸姣的秋色为那些青年们送别。待到战后和平时期,黄叶纷飞的秋天再度来临时,当日的青年们已经失去了青春,有的甚至丧失了生命。”
就比较符合中国人的思维方式,不失为一段出色的翻译。再如奥运口号“北京欢迎您!”表达了中国人民欢迎世界各国人民到北京的心情,我们常见的译文为“welcome to Beijing!”翻译中句式的改变,使用英语祈使句,恰当地表达出中国人期盼奥运的热情。如译为 “Beijing is welcome you”,则语气过于清淡,效果大打折扣。
2 文化背景和社会习俗方面
不同的国家具有不同的文化背景,文化背景差异对翻译实践产生很大的影响,并对翻译实践提出了更高的要求。民族文化背景对语言的发展有极大的影响,每个民族的语言都会带有各自历史文化的痕迹。英汉民族的历史发展不同,因而语言中沉积的文化内涵也不相同。历史文化的一个重要内容体现为历史典故和习语;要译好不同语言中的习语和历史典故,就必须对该语言所反映的历史文化有所了解。Cowboy在汉语中常译为“牛仔”,所以很多人把“He runs a business as a cowboy”译为“他像牛仔一样管理企业。”其实“cowboy”在美国人心目中的真正形象是“独来独往、无拘无束、我行我素”。因此这句话应译为,“他办企业态度不诚实,缺乏经验技术,工作也大大咧咧。”汉语中常说:“说曹操,曹操到”,曹操是中国历史上的著名人物,但许多英语读者就不知他为何人。不过英语中有类似的说法:“Talk of the devil,and he’s sure to appear.”
社会习俗更是如此,它影响和制约着翻译的精确性。在英语国家对一个经过长途旅行后的人可以说“You must be tired from such a long trip.”、“Did you have a good trip?”,表示“路上辛苦了”、“一路好吗?”之类的问候。对正在进行或刚完成一项艰难任务的人,可以说“Well done,That was a hard job”。不同的文化有不同的表达方式,因此在翻译时,一定要考虑两种文化间的差异,决不能望文生义,更不能机械地直译。又如,bread and butter这两样东西在英语国家历史悠久,面包是他们生活中不可缺少的一部分,也是日常的主要食品,所以在语言中的转义也较多。如“bread and butter”还有“生计,谋生之道,靠山”等含义,美国《新闻周刊》评论家大卫·安森说过:“As ever,politics,vulgarity and senti mentality were the bread and butterof the Academy Awards.”(政治、粗鄙和感伤一度成为奥斯卡奖的支柱。)
3 宗教信仰、宗教意识方面
宗教是人类思想文化的重要组成部分,它是由一个民族的宗教信仰、宗教意识所形成的。不同的宗教体现了不同的文化特色和文化传统。__认为,上帝创造了人,人来自尘土,又回归尘土。如:
“BEing a teacher is bEIng present at the creation when the clay beginningto breathe.”
有些人译为,“教师一直在创造中,当土地开始呼吸。”这是由于他们不了解西方人的宗教信仰所致。因为,英语中的“creation”常指“上帝创造”,而“clay”常指“上帝创造的人”。这句话的译文应该是:
“教师是创造的见证人,目睹生命呼吸成长。”
又如,“红色”在汉文化中象征着“喜庆、吉祥、胜利、好运、受欢迎的东西”。而西方则因为耶稣甘愿被钉在十字架上流血牺牲,用生命来拯救世人以及中世纪教派之间的相互残杀,使英民族文化中的“red”总是同流血、牺牲、殉难等不好的事情联系起来,因此“red hands”译为“沾满鲜血的手”,“a red battle”译为“血战”。
4 生存环境方面
因为各民族所处地理位置、天然前提和生态环境等的不同,就形成了不同的地域文化。这不仅影响着各民族语言的表达方式,也直接影响着人们对同一事物不同的理解、语义联想和情感,这就对翻译提出了进一步的要求。英国是一个岛国,历史上航海业曾一度领先世界;而汉民族在亚洲大陆生活繁衍,人们的生活离不开土地。比喻“花钱浪费,大手大脚”,英语是“spend money like water”,而汉语是“挥金如土”。李白《江上咏》中有“功名富贵若长在,汉水亦应西北流。”此处翻译的枢纽就在于如何理解“西北流”。我国地形特征是西高东低,李白用“西北流”喻指功名富贵如过眼烟云,不可能与江河永流。这一比喻是基于我国的地理特征,但因为英美国家处于不同的地理位置,地形特征相异,如采用直译法,很多英国人可能并不解其真正含义,这就要求翻译“西北流”时应做适当的变通,于是译成:
“But sooner could flow backward to is fountains;This stream,than wealth and honor can remain.”
这样译文顶用flow backward(倒流)的方式表达了原文中“西北流”所蕴含的“不可能”之意,但却不能体现原文的工整对仗及中国的地域特征。
5 习语方面
习语的翻译可算得上是难中之难了,因为习语不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种文化产物。如“黔驴技穷”可译为英语中的习惯说法“at one’s wits end”,也可翻译为“The proverbial donkeyin ancient Guizhou has exhausted its tricks,and it can do nothing more.”这种翻译,既传播了汉文化、保存了原汁原味,也符合英语读者的阅读习惯,达到使文化交流贯穿于语言交流的目的。如:“Love me,love my dog”,译为“爱屋及乌”;“A loss may turn out to be a gain”,可译为“塞翁失马,焉知非福”。
同样英汉习语中有大量是由历史典故形成的,这些习语结构简单、意义深远,往往是不能单从字面意义去理解和翻译的。如汉语中的“名落孙山”、“叶公好龙”等;英语中的“meet one’s waterloo”(一败涂地)、“a Pandora’s box”(潘多拉之盒—灾难、麻烦、祸害的根源)等。
三 结语
总之,文化与翻译关系密切,不可分割。翻译离不开文化因素的影响,翻译不仅是语言表面上的题目,更是文化层面上的题目。因为“翻译实质上是文化翻译”,终极目的除了传递原信息外,更要传递文化,促进文化间的交流和理解。在翻译的过程中,译者要让目标文成功地表达源文的内涵,不但要求译者有扎实的语言功底,而且还要熟悉和了解两种语言的文化背景。因此归根到底,语言的翻译就是文化的翻译,其根本任务不仅是翻译文化,而且是翻译容载或蕴含着文化信息的意义,达到中西文化相互交流、融合的目的。
参考文献:
[1] Eugene A.Nida.Language Culture And Translating[M].1993.
[2] 刘宓庆:《文化翻译论纲》,湖北教育出版社,1999年版。
[3] 谭载喜:《新编奈达论翻译》,中国对外翻译出版公司,1999年版。
[4] 王婧媛:《浅谈翻译中的文化因素》,《中国校外教育理论》,2008年版。
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今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是外语翻译论文:文化对影片翻译的影响。具体内容如下,欢迎参考阅读:
The influences of Cultural factor on film translations
文化对影片翻译的影响
Thesis Statement: Difference in eastern western culture causes a thing different in value orientation, Translation of a work of a movie gets a way of direct translation, and, it's possible to admit for an audience. It’s need to changed the Culture in the movie.
Ⅰ. Introduction:
China's movie translation enterprise has passed through more than 50 year magnificent course, Movie translator offered many outstanding translated movies to the mass audiences. Through these outstanding translated movies, the audience while understood foreign land local conditions and social customs also to feel the language infinite charm, many splendid dialogues have become the beautiful line which struggled is on everybody's lips. If "there will be bread. All would have. " (the former Soviet Union film "Lenin in 1918") has inspired generations of adversity live audience in China . Evidently, the film as the mass media, its social effects are incalculable. However, in academic fields, Because of the impact of secular bias, the film is certainly very cold : Translation Studies, Translation Studies seem to completely ignore this area for the. To this end, China's famous scholars Television translation Professor Qian Shao wrote that Television translation of the translation is far less atte
nti
on to literary translation. This translation of the Television disproportionate role in the community. This phenomenon frequently This should arouse the attention of the translation industry.
The language is a country culture carrier, reflects this country's the political economy, the material culture, the religious belief, the manners and customs and so on. The language is different, the thinking mode, the behavior way as well as the language expression way is also different.
This shows that the translation is not as simple as it is not only doing language, in which it stresses culture in the story.
The movie translation namely has the general character with other literary work translation also to have its own particularity. Same is all is expresses in the thought with the language art, different is the movie translation needs simultaneously to achieve manifests in the writing, forms in the sound, expresses in the audience.
Strictly speaking, the translation of a film like filling a word, thinking the contents can not be altered. Each expression has the "style Melody" has also been strictly limited. If translator neglected "I type" of the law, regardless of the words "priorities", said the mayor short, "meaning the right can be," Well, the voice-over : guns, then there will be the following
Ⅴ. Conclusion :
The choice of film translation modes largely contributes to the reception of a source language film in a target culture. The influences of culture factor are leading.
the influences of objective factors on film translations
Abstract: Difference in eastern western culture causes a thing different in value orientation,Translation of a work of a movie gets a way of direct translation, and, it's possible to admit for an audience. It’s need to changed the Culture in the movie.
Key word: Translation of a movie Culture gap
China's movie translation enterprise has passed through more than 50 year magnificent course, Movie translator offered many outstanding translated movies to the mass audiences. Through these outstanding translated movies, the audience while understood foreign land local conditions and social customs also to feel the language infinite charm, many splendid dialogues have become the beautiful line which struggled is on everybody's lips. If "there will be bread. All would have. " (the former Soviet Union film "Lenin in 1918") has inspired generations of adversity live audience in China . Evidently, the film as the mass media, its social effects are incalculable. However, in academic fields, Because of the impact of secular bias, the film is certainly very cold : Translation Studies, Translation Studies seem to completely ignore this area for the. To this end, China's famous scholars Television translation Professor Qian Shao wrote that Television translation of the translation is far less attention to literary
tr
anslation. This translation of the Television disproportionate role in the community. This phenomenon frequently This should arouse the attention of the translation industry.
The language is a country culture carrier, reflects this country's the political economy, the material culture, the religious belief, the manners and customs and so on. The language is different, the thinking mode, the behavior way as well as the language expression way is also different. The language in the sound film is the essential constituent, in the movie work the splendid dialogue, the fragment makes one be worth hearing a hundred times, cannot dismiss from mind for a very long time. The culture in the society on like the memory in the individual, was the people all feasible thing precipitation gets down in the past life, turned the language slowly, turns the writing, turns music, turns the custom, turns the construction, turns the clothing, even turned not the obvious thinking mode, did not affect the future thought, the experience and the motion.
Language and cultural interdependent. Language is the crystallization of culture, culture is transmitted through language. Pragmatic exchanges as a medium for the inevitable translation different language deal can not but be with their respective culture communication. Translation understanding of the basic links and expression is subject to the original language and translated phrase structure rules, and their rules for the use of double requirement. Understand the results of the original language is the meaning and bearing the cultural information, It familiar with the original language of the rules and structure of the use of rules of the community, which can not be divorced from the original language of social and cultural factors; expression with the purpose of understanding found in the information with the target language in its social and cultural context for the effective exchange, It consistent with the structure of language translation rules and the rules for the use of the conditions, So in kee
pin
g with the target language the social and cultural factors collide, the integration phase, therefore, the mission of the translation, in the final analysis, is a social and cultural context to get out and then enter a social and cultural context, and its appearance and the language is the language of communication, and the essence of culture and cultural exchanges. Therefore, the cultural translationby the point of view of language is the carrier of culture, culture is the language of the regulation, translation is culture and culture of dialogue, cross-cultural transmission. As such, the translator must be familiar with the two cultures.
Translation cross-cultural communication is the intermediary links, culture and communication with the dual nature. And the dissemination of culture and integration, is like a "wave-particle duality" -- its "tablets" is a cultural, The "wave" is spread. (15) In other words, Culture and Communication each other for the survival of that culture is the spread of content, is culturally. cultural context of communications. Therefore, we can say this is the process of translating culture and the culture of dialogue, the dissemination of culture, translation itself is a culture, is spread occurs in the language exchanges in the process of cross-cultural communication.
This shows that the translation is not as simple as it is not only doing language, in which it stresses culture in the story; We should not only understand one language, one culture, but also links the two languages, two cultures -- This is the minimum condition For this one, everyone is very difficult to do. Cultural Images "a cultural symbol, it has a relatively fixed unique cultural meaning, and some are still rich with meaning Lenovo far-reaching, as long as the people I mentioned them, a tacit understanding between each other immediately, very easy to communicate ideas. "phenomena and the implication of the two images is an important component. Phenomena is the significance of the information carrier, which was formed image of the objective facts; implies is phenomena in a certain language and the cultural environment of the extended meaning. Imagery that is the function in a variety of contexts, with concrete to the abstract performance, known or easy to know the unknown or enlightenment is difficult
to
know. If the Song Dynasty poet Su Shi, in his famous "Ode of Chibi before," using such Ephemeroptera Chaoshengmusi small insects to describe life is short, people are very insignificant : "Ephemeroptera sent to earth, there has been a drop in the proverbial bucket. "English Proverb It is the last straw that breaks th e camel 's back. meaning "camel overloading, with a straw it will be crushed. "Proverbs imagery words the last straw" Finally a rice grass, "and vividly symbolize" of a people or something intolerable to the pole. "
The movie translation namely has the general character with other literary work translation also to have its own particularity. Same is all is expresses in the thought with the language art, different is the movie translation needs simultaneously to achieve manifests in the writing, forms in the sound, expresses in the audience.
But Chinese, English belong the entirely different two big language families, Chinese are the glyph English are the alphabetic scripts. Movie translator must carry on the successful cut between these two kind of entirely different language families is not an easy matter. The cultural reconstruction finds at everywhere in the movie translation.
The English movie 《Red Shoes》 , mainly narrated an England ballerina cannot make the correct choice facing love and the enterprise, finally moves towards the cliff the chilly wan story. At first when domestic showing, the movie is translated “the red dance shoes”, although the literal translation is faithful to English original intention, also threads up the plot, but appears after all writes in a straightforward manner, arouses audience's any association with difficulty. Later period, the identical movie film title is translated on a foreign outstanding movie exhibition tour “the red water chestnut to be colorful”, thin savors thin, although the movie flipped the translator to compare with that double delicate red dance shoes the red water chestnut which the Chinese audience women and children all knew, the implication red water chestnut grew in the muddy water sludge, actually tender and beautiful enchanting, curved red water, justed like China ancient times female's woman's bound feet, the woman's bound
fe
et although exquisite, but condensed how many female's tears of blood, some has even paid the life price for it. Therefore passes “the red water chestnut to be colorful” this film title to cause the audience to associate is putting on like the red water chestnut dance shoes dancing girl gorgeous actually star crossed. Translator's ingenious borrowing “the red water chestnut” a word, the Chinese culture will graft the movie in the implication, the success has restructured one the cultural image which for the Chinese audience familiar, will comprehend, accepts[Www_LunWenData_Com]
The American movie 《Waterloo Bridge》 , described First World War period, young attractive actress Masurium La knew young military officer Luo on the Waterloo bridge to depend on, has combined to make or become the lover. But after, Masurium La learned Luo Yi died in battle the battlefield, is in deep sorrow, in order to survive reduces for the prostitute. When Luo appears according to the miracle, she is unable facing the reality, for love and the reputation, she arrives once more with Luo according to the first love place, got killed on the wheel billowing Waterloo bridge. It is well known, in 1817 England has made the Waterloo bridge in the Thames river bank investment, commemorates the Wellington duke by this to direct the English army to defeat the battle of waterloo victory which Napoleon obtains. If the literal translation film title is “the Waterloo bridge”, as soon as looked for the first time, the audience can think this is one goes to war the related war piece with Napoleon or is the introduction
an
d this building related documentary film. In the Chinese several millennium cultural histories, with the bridge correlation love story, such as, the cowherd and the weaving maidens “meeting of lovers”, the Shanxi Province Lantian “the blue bridge meets” and so on. “The blue bridge meets” plot has places of the many equally good results from different methods with Waterloo the Bridge. Therefore the translator finally translates the film title “the soul to break the blue bridge”, has avoided the audience ingeniously because the city cultural difference, the historical perspective knowledge lacks losing which causes, as soon as borrows “the blue bridge” to cause the audience to see the film title instantly comprehends this is about love movie.
British film "Night Merry" in the conversation:
Peter: Oh, this? Well, I like privacy when I retire. Yes, I’m very delicate in that respect. Prying eyeeees annoy me. Behold the walls of Jerichho! Err, maybe not aaas thick aas the ones that Joshua blew down with his trumpet. I just show you my heart’s in the right place, I’ll give you my best pair of pajamas. Do you mind joining the Israelites?
White said this is a very representative, because in the meantime, said there were "Jericho walls, Joshua. Israelis "and three" Bible "of the historical story of the words. As we all know, the prevalence of Buddhist East, particularly in China, Chinese viewers can get some idea of Buddhism, and the Western culture, especially the Western religious history knows very little about the culture. Hence the film switch for a moment the Chinese audience of the above three is a link between a difficult matter. They do not understand this, "Jericho wall", "Joshua" and "Israelis" between what is the relationship. Literal translation for the above not only Chinese audiences Lee puzzling. It also lost the film translation of real meaning. To enable the Chinese audience aware of this three terms of relations so that the text of those involved in the special cultural imagery fullness, Translator in the film translation of this text as follows embellishment :
Peter : this? I do not want to break the interference by others, in that regard I am very sensitive, others do not want to be peeped at. You see this as the "Bible" of the Jericho walls, Although not as good as the "Bible" -- Israeli commander Joshua trumpet blown by the thickness, than it much safer. You see, I did not bugle call, in order to express my impartiality, and I put my pajamas happens to the best of you right. You do not want the Israelis? Because of the "Jericho wall", "Joshua" "The Israelis" from the "Bible" of the words added to the story the necessary cultural meaning Xiurun words, audiences not only understand the "story" of the source The next in the Context also realize a final word "Israel" refers to the specific. Xiurun strengthened the language in the context of transparency; Enhance the cultural image in the audience understanding of the definition.
The movie translates the Chinese-adapted reconstruction the significance to lie in it to be able effectively to achieve promptly the movie work the concealed implication, causes the effect which the audience understands.
As a result of the East and West culture difference, movie translator should help the audience to understand as far as possible these with a nationality's history, the region culture, the religious custom and so on have the close correlation language phenomenon. In if the movie translation does not do to certain specific cultural image any touches up processing, considers the matter in and of itself the literal translation, can create this cultural image the damage, the cultural implication is torn to pieces.
American movie Waterloo Bridge, from the very beginning, has this kind of section of offscreen voices:
Announceer’s Voice: At 11:15 this morning, the Prime Ministeer, speaking to the nation from Numbeer Ten Downing Street,announced that Great Britain is at war with Germany.
Right “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” this concealment culture image geographic name does not give supplement showing the speech, believed the overwhelming majority China ordinary audience meets the uninformed at sea its cloud. First the audience does not know “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” in any place. Next, they did not know the radio announcer mentions “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” in here to have what special implication especially. In order to enable the movie translation to reach it in the limited time in the mass audiences. The translator suitably to above translates the document to appropriately supplements touches up, “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” will translate English prime minister the mansion. Through supplements “English prime minister the mansion”, causes the audience now at last truly realized “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” true meaning. Here, “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” conceals the image three-dimensional unfolds in audience's front, the audience understood only then truly has typically the terr
ito
ry culture geographic name “Numbeer Ten Downing Street” complete cultural connotation.
Film translation somewhat like two-man, and the dramatis personae-mouth assembly actor voices sound, words and phrase as its mouth. Translation task is to provide a blueprint for the dubbing, asked to guarantee the accurate, vivid, touching premise, in an attempt to length Rhythm, ventilation, pause and even open-mouth, and other aspects of cooperation with the dramatis personae seek to speak expression, consistent tone, finally give the audience heard the sounds, to see people who know Which statement from the mouth. Translation must take into account a standstill, rhythm and movement, the characters, but also improved the formal and resourcefulness language, humor, intended implication, subtext. Finally, you need to think opera is staged, but also "singalong." It is these elements give the scripttranslation stage theater seeks to rebuild the formal beauty of character.
Strictly speaking, the translation of a film like filling a word, thinking the contents can not be altered. Each expression has the "style Melody" has also been strictly limited. If translator neglected "I type" of the law, regardless of the words "priorities", said the mayor short, "meaning the right can be," Well, the voice-over : guns, then there will be the following : For example, too long phrase translation, dubbing can only accelerate the pace of "drive" -- the results become calm mind anxiously. the occurrence of the character shown impetuous lightly; Instead, the translation of long sentences too short, dubbing can only slow down the "stall" -- the results become agitated enthusiasm sluggish indifference able decisive become Had no resolution. and so on and so forth.
Linguists believe that all the world to see the same objective, different ethnic languages will give it "brush different colors." Because of this, the cultural dislocation images will be specific performance as a metaphor for the culture of body image on the difference. In other words, in a cultural tradition implies a positive image of a beautiful culture in another culture podiums become negative implication of the ugly Cultural Images.
British film "Wuthering Heights" has this kind of a fragment
Isabella: It’s a brother’s duty,dear Edgaar, to introduce his sisteer to some other type than fops and pale young poets.
Edgar: Oh, you want a dragon?
Isabella: Yes, I do. With a fiery mustache.
In Translation "dragon" is the key word. In the English language, the "dragon" as a "devil" interpretation. Whenever the term and Western ideologies will immediately showed an ugly face of the devil are threatening manner toward humans, It is not difficult to see the "dragon" in Western language and culture implicitly pejorative. In Chinese culture "dragon" symbolizes the word "elegance, and the supremacy of" Italy, former emperor of the Chinese people to call "the real dragon the emperor." Thus, the "Dragon" related to the majority of terms agreed with great reverence. If the Chinese refer to themselves as "descendants of the dragon"; Long for their children for the future of promising "succeed." "Dragon" in the East and West languages, its cultural image of the natural implication is absolutely contrary. In short, although the phenomena, but the implication is completely different. Evidently "carabiniere" hard Translation "dragon" is clearly inappropriate. When the Chinese audience watching the film Humi
he
ar, "carabiniere" the word They certainly will immediately think of "he" may be "the Royal Cavalry." But Yishabeila answer to allow the audience to the film's elaborate those induced by consciousness altering clouds. Viewers can not help but ask : The upright "Royal Cavalry," is how "a red-hot long-bearded"? In Chinese tradition, history and culture, Only those who have more heads and hands of a terrible monster green eyebrows, red bearded face. Such copying can not handle things to the language and the cultural dislocation Images of the thorny issues, also not translated this vividly the true meaning of dialogue, but to the semantic context of the link set up a language barrier. Therefore, in the cases of China and Egypt and Yishabeila increase in the last paragraph of dialogue might translate as follows : Edgar : Oh, you want a dragon Oh, you do not want to marry a barbarian! ?Isabella : Yes, I do. With a fiery mustache. Yes, also a long-bearded red-hot. As the East-West cultural differences, the film tr
ans
lation of many English words if the hardware directly translated, will make the Chinese audience unacceptable and endorsements. In addition, the film version of the translation of film screen switching time constraints, not as translated literary works, in some obscure's Office to make some notes, so we will have to give white audience : a, a view that is fully understood. The translator should be based on national audience from the audience were dubbed in Tibetan taste to appreciate the art of perspective, Selection of the national language and the original art is most similar to the unit, most close to the national audience for the familiar, readily accept the terms and cultural imagery to the film translation.
In summary, in the Trans-Culture background must accurately express the implication which the movie must reflect, macroscopically, the translator wants to understand the culture contains, the translation elementary theory and the skill, and in on microscopic must observe the different language family carefully the national culture tradition, the cultural content and the cultural psychology difference performs to contrast and the analysis. Only then in considered the foreign land culture under the premise “the letter, reaches, elegant” merges into one organic whole, causes the translation “the god, the shape” and the cyclopentadiene, like this can guarantee the culture “the facsimile” the realization, can complete the cultural translation truly.
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5、Wangbinqing,《Cultural Translation》[M], Nankai University Press,1995
6、Chendehong、Zhangnanfeng,《Featured Western Translation Theory》[M], City University of Hong Kong Press,2002
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9、Wanghongzhi,《Re-interpretation of the "letter Dayaxin" : 20th-century Chinese Translation》[M], Oriental Publishing Center,1999
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随着全球化的进展,世界各国的文化交流也日趋频繁。胡文仲认为“文化是人们通过长时间的努力所创造出来的,是社会的遗产;价值观念是文化的核心,可以根据不同的价值观念区分不同的文化。”不同文化的人们需要了解他国的图书、音像作品,因此需要将这些文化作品从一种语言转换到另一种语言,即翻译。美国翻译理论家奈特认为,所谓翻译就是指从语言到文体在译语中用最贴切而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息。因此翻译的本质是将一种语言以最为贴切恰当的对等方式转换成另一种语言。由于文化差异的存在,不同的语言之间的翻译往往是一件非常困难的事情。在一种文化中被人所熟知的事物可能在另一种文化中成为鲜为人知的事情,因此要做到对等翻译需要翻译者对目标语文化具有足够的了解,能够恰当地找到两种文化之间的对等语言。总的来说,中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响主要有以下几点:
宗教文化作为西方国家重要的社会文化和人们日常生活的重要组成部分,已经渗透到西方人们的日常行为习惯和民族风俗等各个方面中去了。宗教是西方人们的精神支柱,宗教文化对英语词汇的影响也是非常大的,英语中的很多词汇和典故都出自宗教中记录的一些民间故事和传闻,例如很多派生词、格言、习语都出自《圣经》。相对应的,在中国汉语文化中也有很多语言文化出自佛教。由于中西文化的差异,具体是宗教文化的差异,商务英语翻译者需要准确了解中西文化的背景,保证翻译的准确性,提高商业活动的效益。
谚语的流传都带有一定的小典故,其中蕴含着浓厚的民族气息,也可能是历史文化或者人物传记演变而来,所以在商务英语的翻译过程中,关于谚语的翻译一定要注意文化差异。关于谚语的翻译有三种方法,下面来一一介绍:to be on thin ice 和burnone’s boats 这一类的谚语可以采用套译法,翻译为:如履薄冰和破釜沉舟;to turn a blind eye to 可以采用直译法,翻译为熟视无睹;to ride one’s high horse 可以采用意译法,翻译为趾高气扬;对于有一定典故的谚语,需要熟悉典故的出处,例如Achilles’s heel 这个谚语,直译过来就是“阿基里斯的脚踵”,然而这样的翻译没有太大的意义,首先我们要了解阿基里斯的出处。在希腊神话里面阿基里斯是一位勇士,从没有被打败过,但是敌人找到了他的弱点,就是他的脚踵,然后通过攻击他的脚踵打败了阿基里斯。所以Achilles’s heel 在中国文化里面,翻译为“致命弱点”。
思维方式即人们思考和认识外界事物的方式,它是人类在漫长的历史发展中所形成的。由于欧美和中国所处地区环境不同,因此而形成的风俗习惯、生活条件各不相同,由此而形成了该语言所特有的思维方式。一般说来,西方人比较重视抽象思维。英语在表达思想时,逻辑严谨,由主到次。如英语句子通常先给出主要信息,然后再介绍辅助信息,如时间、地点等等。而汉语言则是散点思维,表达按照多种关系排列,如时间顺序,因果关系等等。同样,英语重视形式逻辑,即形和,在表达时使用各种形式连接词以表示其连接关系;而汉语恰好相反,“汉语句法结构重意合,句中各成分的相互结合多依靠语义的的贯通、语境的映衬,而少用连接词语”。②例如,“早知今日,何必当初?”翻译过来为“If I had known itwould come to this, I would have acted differently.”。上面的汉语句子是由两个分句构成的而没有连接词,但是从逻辑上是从属关系,因此表达意思简洁明了。而翻译成英语时则使用连接词来表达条件和结果的逻辑关系,这符合英语的形和的特点。
翻译中,人们不仅需要注意词的准确性,而且要了解词的内涵意思,而词的内涵意思又是其所承载的文化所决定的。因此如果不了解目标语言的文化,就有可能在翻译中造成理解错误或者语用失误。例如在美国的大街上可以偶尔看到一辆红色或者黑色的小汽车上面喷涂着“I am yellow”的句子。如果直译过来就是“我是黄色的”。而这样的翻译通常让中国人很困惑,在中国人眼里,说一个人是黄色的代表其低俗与下流。其实美国文化中出租车通常是黄色的,因此yellow通常有出租车的意思。因此正确的翻译应该是“这是出租车”。又如美国文化中涉及到狗的成语很多,狗在美国文化中被视为是人的忠实的朋友,因此涉及到狗的成语一般是褒义的,如a lucky dog(幸运儿),Love me, love my dog. (爱屋及乌),Give a dog a bad name and hang him. (欲加之罪,何患无辞)等等,而狗在中国人眼里一般含有贬义,如走狗、狗仗人势、狂犬吠日等等。又如中国人常说“惧内”为“气管炎”(谐音“妻管严”),因此中国开玩笑中的“他有气管炎”如果翻译成“He suffers from trachEitis”在外国人眼里一点也不好笑,外国人会疑惑的问:“So what? Why are you laughing so hard when heis suffering from tracheitis?”这显然是一种翻译的语用失误。如果翻译成“He is an obedient husband.”虽然可以基本表达意思,但是丢失了原话的幽默。因此如果翻译成“He is a henpecked man.”则会在效果上更加惟妙惟肖。
总而言之,语言是人类交流的桥梁,英语和汉语虽然拥有近似的表达方式,但其表达方式的个性特征却不尽相同。正是这些因素,导致了中西方文化差异,让人们在英语翻译过程中产生了许多错误和困惑。因此我们在翻译过程中必须对与中西方文化差异所导致的风俗与礼仪、思维模式以及文化差异引起的词汇歧义加以考虑,多了解西方的风土民俗、文学艺术、宗教信仰及历史背景,透过语句的表面看本质,以达到更加良好、还原度更高的翻译效果。
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商务英语翻译是一种语际转换。它不仅包括语言符号的转换,更涉及不同商业文化之间的沟通。文化信息的传递是完全可能的,主要是通过翻译了解他国文化。文化信息的对等也是可能的,我们可以遵循奈达先生的“功能对等”(Functional Equivalence)原则,这里的“对等”不能理解为数学意义上的等同,只能是近似的等同,即以功能对等接近程度为依据的近似。他认为翻译的目的应该是原文和译文在信息内容 、说话方式、文体、文风、语言、文化、社会因素诸方面达到对等。为了达到这些对等,必须在翻译中进行调整。
1.探究词语的历史、社会背景意义及文化内涵,准确把握文化信息的对等。文化翻译既要考虑历史、社会背景,又要注重那些有同有异,大同小异,同中有异的词语,译者要保持清晰的思维,既要注重文化深层的蕴含,又要了解语言表层含义的异同之处。
2.恰当使用汉语中的习语和规范语,以最佳的方式展视文化信息。文化翻译实践的过程,可以说是对原语文字与文化内容进行深刻剖析,得其义,悟其神,然后用锤炼过的译语文字将其表达出来的过程。译语不仅要保持前面所说的“原味”,而且必要时还要具有“本土味”,即采用规范的汉语和被中国人接受的习惯表达方式,否则同样也达不到“传真”效果。
3.不要给“洋人”穿上“长袍马褂”,原汁原味地体现文化。鲁迅先生在谈翻译时特别强调要注意异国情调,也就是所谓的洋气。此处“洋气”是指保存原语所蕴含的异域文化特色,不要使英语说法带上特有的中国色彩。例如:英语成语(a region) flowing with milk and honey 来自《圣经》,牛奶和蜂蜜是西方人熟悉的食品,这一成语如译成汉语的“鱼米之乡”,虽然意思相近,但未免有些不伦不类了。故还是译成“物产富饶之地”比较合适。
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摘 要:商务英语翻译是一种语际转换。它不仅包括语言符号的转换,更涉及不同商业文化之间的沟通。进行国际商务英语翻译时必须特别注意文化差异,必须在外国文化和本国文化中找到一个切合点。
关键词:商务英语翻译 文化差异 思维方式
Abstract: Business English Translation is a Interlingual conversion. It not only includes the conversion of linguistic signs, but also involves communication between the different commercial cultural. International Business English translation must pay special attention to cultural differences, must find a relevant point between foreign culture and national culture.
Key Words: Business English Translation ;cultural differences ;mode of thinking
综上所述,要准确地进行翻译,就必须考虑这三个要素:不同语域的民族文化传统、文化内容和文化心理。各民族有着其独特的文化。东西方人有不同的哲学 、文化传统,所以,文化差异就必然存在。此外,差异的原因还在于东西方民族地理、历史、风土人情等的不同。正是这些文化差异的存在使得文化翻译的可译性受到限制。进行国际商务英语翻译时必须特别注意这些差异,必须在外国文化和本国文化中找到一个切合点。如果这个切合点是两种文化的交融,那就是最理想的了。
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【摘 要】 影响国际商务谈判的因素有很多,因此在国际商务谈判中,正确对待跨文化因素,化不利因素为有利因素,对于促进谈判的成功有重要意义。本文对国际商务谈判中跨文化因素进行研究。
【关键词】 国际商务谈判;跨文化因素;分析
前言:
随着全球经济一体化的迅速发展,国际间的交流也日益密切,国际商务谈判作为国际贸易中的一个环节,起着至关重要的作用。
一、国际商务谈判中跨文化的概念
国际商务谈判是指来自于两个或两个以上不同国家地区的参加商务谈判的当事人,为满足各自的需求,通过信息交流或者举行会议磋商的方式以致达成共识的行为和过程。参与谈判的主体应属于两个或两个以上的国家地区,他们代表的是不同国家地区的利益,谈判者有着不同的文化背景、社会价值观、思维方式、交往模式以及语言习惯,而这些对国际商务谈判的成功与否有着重要作用。其实从这点可以看出,国际商务谈判更名为跨文化国际商务谈判更为合适,国际商务谈判中的跨文化概念跟国际商务谈判的概念其实是等同的。
二、国际商务谈判中的跨文化因素根源分析
1、国民性
国民性是一个国家,一个民族所特有的。表现在拥有共同的思想文化观念、社会价值观、判断处理事情的行为方式。一个民族的文化根基是国民性形成的基础,它是一个国家长时间的历史积淀形成的,有别于其他的国家民族。中西方由于历史发展、社会制度等诸多因素的不同,造就了他们在文化传统、价值观念以及认知方式上不同,甚至大有区别,以致在国际商务谈判过程中经常出现意见对立和思想误解。
我国国民性的主要体现就是中国人所谓的“面子”问题,或者说“体面”。如果有涉及中国人“体面”的问题出现在国际商务谈判中,而且同时又涉及到自身利益时,大多数中国人会选择“体面”。与此相反,西方人则会选择“利益”。因为,我们中国人把处理事情的结果能否让自己更“体面”当成头等大事。
2、伦理和法制观念
我们中国人遇事一般不会主动从法律上考虑问题,“面子”的问题让我们觉得动用法律的事都是坏到极点的事,没必要把两个人的事情闹的那么大。而是首选从社会伦理道德上来思考问题。可是大多数西方人却恰恰与我们相反。
在中国,社会舆论、他人评价以及道德评判等社会伦理的考验始终在人们心中占据领导地位,一旦遭遇不可避免的纠纷,首先去做的就是如何赢得社会舆论的维护,伦理道德的支持。“得道多助,失道寡助”已经在中国人的思想中根深蹄固。所以,很多应该利用法律来解决的问题,中国人都是通过各种“组织”、通过社会舆论来发挥作用进行私了和解。而西方人士对于纠纷的处置,则更加习惯首选法律手段。因为法律很简单,可以快速直接的给出纠纷结果,而不是通过靠良心发现的社会伦理道德评判,历经十天半月才得出同样的结果。西方拥有很多的私人律师及法律顾问、律师事务多,遭遇纠纷时直接移交律师处理。而我们中国人却是不辞辛劳地通过复杂的人际关系去解决纠纷,这在西方人看来就是浪费时间。
3、思维方式
中西方的思维方式有很大区别,这直接影响了他们处理事情的方法方式。中国的明星经理人,盛大网络的总裁唐骏曾经做过一次有关演讲:中、日、韩三国是典型的东方思维,而美、英则是典型的西方思维。两种思维方式截然不同,西方思维注重做事效率,出手果断直接从不拖泥带水;而东方思维则讲究谦虚谨慎,注重首先营造宽松愉快的环境,然后才是做事。所以中、日、韩在接到美、英等西方国家一些企业的商业函件时,通常都是先看结尾再看开头。因为西方思维注重做事效率,不讲什么谦虚谨慎,一般会在商业函件的开头就直接给出此次来函目的,而在结尾才是如果目的达成各方会有什么利益。这让习惯东方思维的中日韩很不习惯,觉得他们太粗鲁,不会营造氛围。而在美英收到中日韩的商业函件时,也是从尾部先看,然后再看开头,美英觉得中日韩开头的利益分析是在浪费他们的时间,他们要在第一时间知道你要和我们做什么。
学过英语的人都知道英文句子的各种成分放置顺序有着严格的要求,通常的是越重要的成分越靠前,像时间、地点还有一些修饰词语通通放到最后。不像我们中文却把时间、地点和修饰成分放在开头。语言的形成是一个国家、一个民族历经上百年甚至上千年的历史传承与延续才有的,所以它的形式就决定了这个国家、这个民族的认知方式、传达方式。
三、国际商务谈判中的跨文化因素分类
根据荷兰一位管理学教授的调研结果表示,国际商务谈判的文化因素类型主要有五大类:受权威影响的文化因素、受个人影响的文化因素、受集体主义影响的文化因素、受男权主义影响的文化因素和不确定性影响的文化因素。
1、受权威影响的文化因素
权威,即地位。双方谈判中,一般都是双方团队碰面进行谈判,谈判最终会由团队讨论得出一个结论,但是最终结果如何还是要听团队中最权威的领导的。所以国际商务谈判中,如果对方是这种“一带多”的谈判团队,我方企业就要采取相应对策。在国际上,法国和比利时是受这种谈判方式影响较大的典型。
2、受个人影响的文化因素
受这种文化因素影响的国际商务谈判,一般都是双方不会进行第二次合作,或者不再做进行长久合作的打算。谈判过程中,谈判人员更重视取得的商业利益,而不重视和谐的谈判关系。与美国的很多企业谈判时,经常会听到他们的谈判人员说:“我一个人能行”这样个人主义极其强烈的语言。
3、受集体主义影响的文化因素
与个人主义极其强烈的文化因素相比,受集体主义影响的文化因素就注重的是双方的和谐关系。双方形成一种和谐的谈判关系,站在对方角度思考问题,以便长期开展业务合作。日本、拉丁国家的文化就是此范畴之内的。
4、受男权主义影响的文化因素
就像中国古代讲究“男尊女卑”,在现代的国际商务谈判中,这种“男尊女卑”的现象依旧存在。他们认为,男人才是社会的主导,而国际商务谈判这种高端谈判,更需要男人来完成。就像在日本,女人就是被排斥在商务谈判之外的。
5、不确定性影响的文化因素
这种不确定的文化因素其实是一种冒险精神,他们喜欢像未来的不确定性挑战。而我国企业谈判的特点就是求稳妥,会比一切不稳定因素。但是国际商务谈判增多的今天,我国要注重这方面因素的对待。
四、跨文化因素影响国际商务谈判的体现
1、影响沟通过程
沟通贯穿着国际商务谈判的始终,是谈判能否顺利进行的关键环节。价值取向影响沟通过程,主要表现为:不同价值取向的谈判主体对谈判者自身和对手的定位不同,对谈判所要达到的目标的定位也存在差异,从而影响谈判各方的沟通。
思维方式影响人们对于信息的理解,可能造成双方对于信息理解的分歧或误解,辩证思维的谈判者与逻辑思维的谈判者对于同样的情形所做出的反应会有很大差异;风俗习惯影响谈判者的行为模式,进而影响谈判各方的沟通,无意触犯对方的文化禁忌会造成双方沟通的失败。
2、影响谈判风格
(1)谈判顺序
中国人喜欢先拉关系后展开对谈判主题的讨论,在谈判各方有一定的感情基础时,再进行商务谈判,俄罗斯和日本的商人也比较注重谈判前的交际。西方人更倾向于直接进入到商务谈判阶段,这与谈判主体的风俗习惯及价值观有很大的关系。此外,部分国家的商人具有强烈的时间观念,一般会考虑谈判前建立人际关系的机会成本。如英国和部分欧洲国家,他们一般不会随便与别人建立关系,不主动与其他国家的谈判代表交流。
(2)决策程序
中国和俄罗斯早期开展过计划经济,强调计划重于市场,市场调节只是作为一种辅助工具,因此该地区的商人权力观念比较强,在决策程序上仍然存在一定的集权成分。而美国和加拿大的商人,在谈判中每个小组成员都具有相对独立性,有一定的自主决策权。对于谈判的细节考虑的更周全,决策更加准确。
(3)对待合同的态度
美国文化融合了世界上很多国家的文化,流动性较高,他们无法建立比较稳定的信任基础,因此,比较重视纸质合同和契约。英国的谈判者要求合同准确无误,合作的流程和细节也要完整地在合同上体现出来。随着中国与世界的贸易往来越来越多,法律制度的不断完善,中国人也开始重视合同的拟定。
3、影响决策方式
价值取向和风俗习惯的不同导致权力距离的不同,决定谈判主体的决策方式是权力主义决策方式还是协商决策方式。中国传统文化中,等级差别和中庸思想的影响较为深刻,中国的谈判者的决策方式更偏向于权力主义决策方式。与中国不同,在美国传统文化中更崇尚自由和平等,自由女神和独立宣言的影响较为深刻,美国的谈判者的决策方式倾向于协商决策方式和个人主义决策方式。
在谈判桌上,美国人把谈判看成是一个解决问题的过程。他们依靠归纳推理,凭借事实和数据来解决问题。决策对美国人来讲,是由负责的个人作出的,不是有关的群体或集体来决定的。第二,妥协对美国人来讲是签订合同过程中不可缺少的策略,也就是说,它含有积极的意义。但对中国人来讲,它的意义从来都是消极的。第三,对美国人来说,最高目标是完成任务,因此,所有的事情都应按着一种确保完成任务的最佳方式进行。
在中国人的观点里认为国家是一个整体,选择整体的同时,个体发展的积极性就受到了一定程度的影响。在这种情绪下,整体的发展速度必定会受到制约。中国人由于受集体主义和权威主义的影响,很少把谈判过程视为一个解决问题的过程,人们在作出决策的过程中,把相关的众多因素综合考虑,包括对方的态度、感情和情绪。他们对别人的情感和态度十分敏感,而且友谊、感情以及态度等这些美国人很少考虑的因素,对中国人来讲都会起很大的作用。
五、应对国际商务谈判跨文化的对策
1、加强跨文化商务谈判的意识
虽然现今社会网络发展迅速,可以让企业通过网络去更多的了解自己的合作伙伴,但是仍然后很多企业没有注意到文化因素对国际商务谈判的重要性。所以企业要加强跨文化商务谈判的意识,通过了解文化背景、需求、动机和信念甚至信仰上的不同,尊重对方的文化和宗教信仰,从而在谈判过程中给对方留下一个好印象、占据主动,从而促进谈判的成功。
2、互相尊重,平等互利
平等互利是国际商务谈判的基本原则,来自不同国家的谈判者,拥有平等的权利,都有提出合理的要求和意见的权利。在国际商务谈判中,谈判者不仅要认识到跨文化因素的存在,也要对谈判对方的价值取向、思维方式、风俗习惯、语言和非语言习惯持宽容和理解态度。每一种文化都有其相对独立性,我们无法避免跨文化因素的存在,不能把它们绝对融合,但谈判主体之间的互相包容可以减少跨文化冲突。
3、了解谈判对手的社会禁忌和习俗
在中国代表上手的仙鹤,在法国文化中却代表着蠢汉;而数字“四”却因为谐音“死”在日本文化中被排斥,但是我国却讲究“四六成双”代表吉祥。所以,谈判之前充分了解谈判对手的社会习俗和禁忌至关重要。不要因为无心之失导致谈判失败,并且伤了双方和气,不利于以后的合作。
4、避免沟通障碍
由于国际商务的谈判者来自不同的国家,不同的文化背景,谈判者来自两个或者两个以上的国家,可能共用一种语言也可能使用不同的语言,沟通过程中语言的差异会成为最大的问题。因此,国际商务的谈判主体要对谈判对方国家的语言有充分的了解和学习,避免谈判各方的交流障碍。首先,注重翻译人员的翻译素质。要了解外国文化和语境,避免因为不了解文化造成的误会。一般国际商务谈判都会存在语言文化的障碍。一般企业都会配备翻译,但是如果翻译人员对你对方文化不了解,将一些单词翻译错误,就会造成南辕北辙的现象,最终导致谈判的崩盘。在联合国发生过这样一件事,秘书长去伊朗协助解救人质,解救过程中说:“我来这里是以中间人的身份来寻求某种妥协的”。但是他的一席话却遭到了伊朗民众的围攻。原因很简单,“中间人”这个单词在伊朗的文化中代表“爱管闲事的人”,这样的错误一度导致这场解救陷入窘境。所以国际商务谈判的翻译人员一定要具有很高的素质。
其次,注重翻译人员的水平。这是对翻译人员的“硬件要求”。以英语翻译为例,比如对“second-class”的翻译,如果正确翻译为二级企业,那么双方谈判就能顺利进行,但是如果翻译成二流企业,那么谈判就可以立即终止了。一个优秀的跨国企业,为什么要和一个二流企业进行合作?所以,企业在选用翻译人员的时候,要特别注意翻译人员的专业水平和对词汇掌握的精准度,不会因为任何一个模棱两可的词汇导致降低了企业实力、损害了企业形象,最终导致谈判中断。
六、结束语
随着经济全球化的发展和各个国家间经济交往的不断深入,中美贸易、对外贸易谈判将日益增多,认识到这种跨文化差别可帮助我们的谈判人员避免因为无知于文化差异而在商务活动中产生的负面影响。我们必须加强跨文化谈判的意识,了解到不同文化背景的谈判者在需求、动机、信念上的不同,学会了解、接受和尊重对方文化,也要学会如何正确的表达出自己的意愿,尽量缩小和避免文化差异带来的负面影响。适当的调整自己的谈判方式及策略以达到预期目的,取得贸易谈判的成功。
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随着国际化时代的到来,企业的跨国经营成为常态,国际间沟通和交流正呈现不断发展和扩大的态势,在国际商务活动不断增加的今天,国际商务英语翻译工作显得越来越重要,熟练应用自身水平于能力,准确地翻译商务用语成为商务英语翻译的关键,对于一个企业顺利地进行商务活动来讲更是具有重要的意义。而在商务英语的翻译中,各国的文化差异有着重要的影响,是商务英语翻译过程中不可忽视的因素,中西方国家的文化背景、宗教信仰、风俗习惯和文化传统等有着一定的差异性,因此,商务英语翻译人员必须充分了解各国的文化差异,掌握翻译中的技巧,在交流中准确翻译,促进商务活动的进展,加速全球一体化的进程。
中国和英美国家分处不同的文化圈,文化的核心和重点存在着显著的差异,中国文化重视人伦、强调道德、重在会意、提倡综合,在天地人三者之间主张和谐同意,力图以集体主义和群体意识来实现整个社会的发展。而英美文化更加重视物质,利益是价值观的出发点,对个人的权利和感受更加注重,在人与社会和人与自然的关系上,英美文化更加强调"人"的因素,在一定程度上割裂了人与其他方面的关系。
每种文化都有其独特的文化符号,这是由于不同文化对事物的认知差异造成的,龙是中华文化的瑞兽,象征着吉祥、神圣、威严,这是几千年中国文化不断沉淀,历史不断发展而形成的独特现象。而在英美国家龙被看作是邪恶的代表,在很多国家的传说中都有勇士杀死恶龙的作品,在苏格兰和爱尔兰地区龙还是暴徒和恶妇的代名词。从上面的例子我们可以得出,商务英语翻译中应该根据国家、文化的不同有针对性地选择替代词汇,这样才能避免因文化跨越而阐述的沟通障碍,加速国际商务更为全面地沟通。
中国地处亚洲,英美分处欧美,在地理上存在着位置上的巨大差异,因此,在文化中很多关于地理知识的名词具有本质上的不同,例如:中国人对"东风"有着积极的意愿,"万事俱备只欠东风"就是这一认知的基本代表,在中国文化看来东风有及时、有效、温暖的含义,因此,第二汽车制造厂出产的品牌以"东风"为核心。而在英国由于受到大西洋暖流的影响,同样的含义被"Zephyr(西风)"这一单词替代,这是由于大西洋吹过来的西风给英国带来干爽和温暖的季节,如果不重视此类差异势必给商务英语翻译和深度沟通工作带来巨大的障碍。
英美在宗教信仰上属于基督教文明范畴,文化中基督教和圣经的影响十分明显,特别在英美文化形成和发展的过程中基督教文明起到了决定性的作用,导致英美国家在习惯和思维上对基督教文化都有着不同深度的体现。而中国文化主要受儒家、道家和佛教的影响,汉语中很多耳熟能详的词汇都来自于上述的学说、信仰和宗教,这一现实性差异要在商务英语翻译中加以重视,既不能机械性简单直译,也不能任意拼造,否则会阐述商务活动的障碍,失去英语翻译的价值。
中国文化源远流长,其语言表述的方式也非常复杂,在汉语中的"太阳"一词就有:金轮、大盘、金乌、赤日等称为,不同的地点存在着不同的用法。同样情况在英美文化圈也有相同的现象,"抱歉"对应的词语有:regret、I'm sorry、apology等不同的表达方式。进行商务英语翻译要考虑到语言表述方面的差异,要将商务英语翻译纳入中国和英美两种语言环境,这样才能有效地提高商务英语翻译的表述能力,将商务英语交流与沟通的精髓展现出来。
商务英语翻译的实质是在两种语言之间进行转换,进而实现商务沟通的目标,在商务英语翻译的过程中既要实现不同文化符号之间的转换,同时也应该做到不同商业文化背景和商业行为之间的有效沟通。在商务英语翻译过程中要以文化信息的沟通作为深层次的手段,通过对双方历史和文化的深层次解读来实现进一步地交流,在促进国际商务发展的同时,加速国际文化的融合。商务英语翻译是一项技巧,没有固定的格式和体系,既不能根据原文进行直译,同时也不能凭空捏造,要对国际商务参与者的文化、宗教、信仰和习俗有深层次地把握,利用对方可以接受的语言习惯于交流方式来实现国际商务的沟通,在做好商务英语翻译的基础上,促进国际商务的顺利开展,避免因文化、语言和习惯上的差异给国际商务带来的不便。在国际商务英语翻译中应该讲求方式和方法,这样才能实现更为有效地沟通,在提升商务英语翻译技巧的前提下,使商务英语翻译发挥出应有的作用。当前应该从如下几个方面提升商务英语翻译的技巧:
商务英语翻译质量提升的一个重要前提使对原文的深刻理解,只要将原文所要表达的意图做深层次地研究,才能够了解国际商务活动的实质和真正想法。因此,在商务英语翻译中不能单一观察和理解原文的意义,要进一步挖掘原文的思想和表达的关键,这样才能更好地针对不同国家的文化差异而做到对精神和思想实质的把握,进而利用恰当的词语来实现商务英语翻译工作。
国际商务沟通有着约定俗成的规范,在商务英语翻译过程中应该善于使用这些规范,进而形成商务英语翻译的技巧,这是以为成功商务英语翻译者应该做到的。商务英语翻译工作者要正确认知自身工作的意义,从翻译、传播、渠道等方面借鉴国际商务活动的惯例与习惯,迅速对商务英语翻译工作进行调整,建立起适于商务英语翻译,有利于国际商务交往的相关技巧,通过素质的提升来武装自己,实现对商务英语翻译工作更深层次地发展。
在不同的商务英语翻译活动中应该把握语言的艺术,通过不同的风格来提高商务英语翻译的有效性,实现国际商务交往的深化。与英美人士进行国际商务沟通中要注重用词的恰当和礼仪的周到,在口头沟通中,商务英语翻译要突出礼貌用于,在信函交往中要重视语气的委婉和用词的准确,既要给人礼貌的印象,同时也要做到严谨而周密。
在国际商务交往中应该注重对方的文化背景和个人特质,不能擅自用本民族和本文化圈中的认知来杜撰商务英语翻译,要理解个人是文化的组成部分,个人深受文化影响的深刻含义,要在商务英语翻译中体现出目标语言的文化背景,反映出目标语言的社会特性,从更艺术、更合理的角度对商务英语翻译进行结构,在应用文化和社会相关知识的基础上,平复广大文化间的差异,实现更为有效地商务英语翻译和国际商务沟通。
中国和英美国家在文化、习俗、宗教等方面存在着巨大的差距,这会给商务活动造成诸多的不便,若在英语翻译中没有把握各国的特点,不能够对文化和意识差异进行沟通,则会形成商务英语翻译的困难于问题。商务英语翻译人员应该加深对中国和英美国家习俗、背景、信仰等方面的研究,做到对文化深层次地展示,在提高商务英语翻译准确性和恰当性的基础上,有效实现商务的沟通于交流,在基础上促进国际商务活动的进一步发展,为全球化商务活动的不断深化提供文化与交往的空间和氛围。
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语言基本上是一种文化和社会产品,要理解它就应该从文化和社会的角度出发。英汉两种语言之间的文化差异给其在语义层面上的转换带来了巨大的障碍,其差异首先表现为价值观念的不同。汉文化是一元文化,强调“社团价值论”;英文化是多元文化,崇尚“个人价值至上论”。除了价值观念差异之外,英汉文化差异还与两个民族所处的地理环境与社会环境、气候条件和风俗习惯等息息相关。
英汉民族由习俗引起的文化差异在一些与动物有关的词汇短语上体现得非常明显。英国人喜欢马,养马、骑马、赛马成为其风俗,英国文化就属于典型的的“马文化”,所以英语中有关马的说法极其丰富,诸如talk horse(吹牛)、 get on one’s high horse(趾高气扬)、horse and horse(并驾齐驱)等等。然而中国是传统的农业国,世代的牛耕生活使汉语囤积了大量的“牛文化”。牛是“吃苦耐劳,勤奋踏实”的象征,“俯首甘为孺子牛”就是体现的这种情结。相反在英语中却用马来代替,汉语中的“老黄牛”翻译成英语也就成了“a willing horse”。
不光如此,英汉语言中的一些表示颜色的词汇也沉淀了不同民情的文化。“红色”在汉语中含有极强的褒义色彩,“大红大紫”显示的是成功和富贵、喜庆和吉祥。与此相反, “red”却常常让西方人想起流血、战争、恐怖、愤怒和危险,含有较强的贬义。
伴随着二十世纪六十年代以来西方翻译的科学理论化进程,我国自八十年代后期,翻译研究呈现出突飞猛进的发展势头。与此同时,随着经济与文化等各方面全球化的影响,无论是翻译理论研究还是翻译实践都展现出一派蓬勃发展的面貌。
在我国,翻译的对象领域被人为的划分为“非文学”的和“文学”的。“非文学”的主要是指一般的实用性文体,如政治、经济、科技、金融、商贸、旅游、体育等,其中最主要的要数“科技翻译”;“文学翻译”则是与科技翻译并行的翻译的门类和方法论。随之也便产生了“非文学”研究和“文学”研究。“非文学”翻译被认为是一种技术性的活动,在翻译活动中长期处于优势地位,与此同时,我们不能否认,文学翻译研究在翻译研究这一领域中占了主导地位,一直是人们关注的焦点。
20世纪80年代以来,受文化研究大潮的影响,翻译的历史文化研究日益受到重视,中西翻译的语言和文化思维的差异表现得极为突出,基于对语境、语气、含蓄等的敏感度及广泛运用各种修辞手法等方面的关注,翻译的文化因素被更多地加以考虑。
语言不仅是人类思想感情表达与交流的工具,而且是文化的组成部分,是文化的载体。语言能真切地反映一个国家、一个民族的生态地域、政治经济、物质文化、宗教信仰、风俗习惯等。不同的语言决定了不同民族不同的思维方式、行为方式以及语言表达方式。然而语言的个性与共性是共存和并重的,洪堡特曾经说过:“比较语言研究是对语言差异的准确探索。”可以说,寻找差异的目的是达到统一,其中必须特别关注的,则是语言的音形、词句、文体等形式中所内涵的精神文化实质。
翻译的实质是将一种语言转换成另一种语言,其目的在于把原语的全部信息输入译语,同时取得最大限度的等值效果。英汉两种语言分属于印欧语系和汉藏语系,不同的语系特点,决定了各自的构词法和词义表达差异很大,要想确切地表达原作内容,在翻译过程中就要应用各种技巧。
有时为了使译文更加符合汉语的表达习惯和规律,在忠实于原文的前提下,必须选词、增词、省略、把词类适当地加以转换,才能使译文通顺自然。当然翻译并不是纯语言本体的转换,它与社会文化等有着各种关系。每一个民族都有自己的社会文化特色,文化是使人们凝聚为一个共同整体的一系列共享的意义、信仰和价值,有其特定的时空范围,因此,一些话语的正说与反说、句型和习语等在翻译时也要考虑到它们各自的特点。
在中国文化和历史中,有许多辉煌成就令外国学者向往,他们认为中华文化博大精深、多姿多彩,其历史源远流长,因此形成了构思方式和语言组织上的重视意合和悟性,区别于西方思维差异上的重形合和理性。汉语的意合无须借助词汇语法的衔接手段,仅靠词语与句子内涵意义的逻辑关系或借助语境、语义、语用的因素,便能构成连贯的语篇,这一特点集中体现在古汉语文学作品中;而英语在语言形式上把词语句子结合成语篇整体时则少不了词汇语法的显性衔接。
德国思想领袖哈贝马斯倡导的“交往行动理论”以理解与沟通为现代社会最高目标,认为翻译研究应该成为人类交往实践的一项基本训练,从他人的角度出发,建立起主客体间的有效联系。这对不同文化背景下的交往甚至是相同背景下的交往都是必要的,这样可以改变现实生活中单向的思维模式,建立一种新的主客体认识模式。
中国人的传统思维讲究天人合一、人法自然、万物皆备于我,所以主体参与意识很强,在语言表达上表现为多以“人”作主语。西方人由于理性的分析而偏重于主客分离和区别,所以有时以“人”这个主体为主语,有时以客体为主语,视情况需要而定,但更多的是抱着客观审视的态度,以事物为主语并进行客观、冷静的剖析和描述,这就导致了英汉语篇主语、主位或是重心上的差异。
从根本上讲,这是中西方各自重综合与重分析思维习惯的表现。中国人喜欢螺旋式的展开方式,先宣称主题之重要,继而进行反复的论述和强调,最后回归到主题;西方人喜欢直线形逻辑思维,就是先表达出中心意思,由此展开,或层层推演或逐项分列,后面的语句由前面的语句自然引出。在一句含有时间、地点、事件的通知性的话语中,中国人的习惯表达是“我们将在什么时间什么地点做什么事情”,西方人的表达是“要进行的事件+地点+时间”。
例如,中国人习惯上说:我们明天早上去看姑妈,7∶00在院子门口集合。西方人的表达是:We will meet at the courtyard gate at 7 O’clock tomorrow morning in order to visit our aunt.
翻译是传译两种相异的语言与文字,总需要将译者与被译者两方面的语言文字做一番深刻的研究,看中文与外文究竟有哪些相异之处。这些相异之处有文法上的、修辞上的、习惯上的和表现手法上的。
如:由于英语重句子的建构,英语句型多,尤其长句多,西方人习惯于使用“叠床架屋”式结构的长句子,在进行翻译时,都要关照到。
在某种意义上说,翻译活动中准确和流利的表达就是在理解原文的基础上,通过深入的逻辑分析和推理,不断冲破原文词义或句法结构的强制范畴,把原文精髓用规范、通顺的译文语言全息再现出来。由于这样的译文不是原文的机械复制品,它往往需要创造性劳动,亦即语言艺术。而表达的艺术主要体现在理解翻译法以及对于原文用词、句法结构、叙述顺序等问题的恰到好处的处理上。由“直译”与“意译”引发出“异化”和“归化”,在翻译实践中都不能不采用。没有哪一种译文是完全异化或完全归化的,在翻译过程中若能使二者相得益彰,那么就会收到意想不到的效果。
西方美学有着悠久的历史和许多优良的学术传统,尤其是近几十年来它的飞跃发展,对译学影响越来越大。在进行文学翻译时,不能忽略作品的比较美学价值,不拘泥于表层结构和形态,不注重译作语言质量的高下。现代翻译需要我们对译品所蕴含的代表不同文化系统的审美特征,乃至于对不同国家和民族所持有的不同的审美理论和思维方式,做出美学价值上的判断,以探索其审美本质和规律。
比较文学的翻译研究不能局限于某些语言现象的理解与表达,也不参与评论其优劣,而是把翻译文学作品作为既成事实加以接受,不仅要对其进行一般意义上的价值判断,还要在此基础上展开对文学交流、影响、接受、传播等问题的考察与分析。
研究文学翻译,研究翻译理论,可以拓展新的角度、新的方法,不再单纯评价译品的优劣高下,而是将各类译品作为审美对象,从美学角度进行鉴赏、品味、对比、分析,使文学作品及其译品所蕴含的美学因素及其价值得到淋漓尽致的揭示,使读者在研读文学翻译作品的同时,充分领略原作与译作的审美价值。
英汉互译实践与技巧翻译是一门实践性极强的学问,需要长期下苦功夫才能真正学到手。译者的翻译能力的形成不能单靠学习理论知识、强化技巧训练,而是需要扎扎实实的双语功底及大量的翻译实践。
无论什么翻译,都不可避免地带有交流的目的。在国际文化交流日益繁荣,在中国与国际各领域接轨日益加速的时代,为使翻译学得以更好的发展,在注意到中西语言文化思维差异性的同时,必须打破翻译研究的地域、学科、流派的限制,形成跨学科综合、多元互补的研究格局,在译学领域加强交流,跨越不同的传统与体系,进行中西译论体系间的双向互补、借鉴和相互渗透,以达到中西译学的交融与共生。
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企业若想在市场中占有较高的市场占有率,必须开展良好的市场营销活动。下面是读文网小编为大家整理的电子商务对市场营销的影响论文,供大家参考。
随着网络计算机技术的不断普及,电子商务也被广泛地运用到市场营销中来。电子商务作为市场营销手段的一种,是企业当前营销产品的重要手段之一。相比较传统的影响手段而言,电子商务是在互联网上进行的,可以随时进行,没有了时间和地域的限制,能够在全球范围内,为供求双方提供很多选择的机会,覆盖面非常广。同时,电子商务参与市场营销有利于减少交易的中间环节,为消费者提供了更多的廉价且质量好的商品。现如今,电子商务更加符合年轻人的追求,满足了青年群体的个性消费需求,具有很大的发展潜力。
一、电子商务与市场营销
当前,电子商务已经发展演变成通过互联网技术实现产品的生产、销售、流通的环节,它已经不再是狭义的电子商务了,其参与企业生产、销售的各个环节中,在企业发展中发挥着重要的作用。市场营销是企业通过向客户介绍其产品价值,而客户根据自身的需求进行选择的过程。市场营销是企业获得发展的基础,企业进行产品的生产,只有将产品营销出去,才会产生利润,企业才能获得发展。因此,企业的市场营销理念、手段等关系到企业的生死存亡。电子商务作为当前一种新型的营销手段,它是在互联网发展的基础上产生的,以传统市场营销为背景,却又不完全等同于传统的市场营销,是在传统的营销理论基础上结合了当代的计算机网络技术发展起来的,为企业和消费者提供了一个全球性的平台,降低了企业的生产成本,为消费者提供性价比较高的产品,且交易方式迅速便捷。通过电子商务的销售平台,企业能够及时的获取客户的消费信息,及时对企业业务进行调整,改变市场的供求关系,促进市场营销的良性竞争和发展。
二、电子商务对市场营销的影响分析
电子商务低成本、迅速便捷的特征,为企业的发展提供了良好的发展契机,通过电子商务信息的反馈,企业能够及时嗅到商业机会、及时更新产品,促使产品生产向精细化发展,体现特色化服务,吸引消费者眼球,开拓更广阔的市场。
1.市场营销理念的变化
现如今,市场营销理念最明显的变化是,消费者从被动接受到以客户为中心的以人为本的营销理念的转变。在传统的市场营销理念中,企业占上风而消费者主要是被动接受营销理念,企业在产品生产、销售、流通的过程或者是在服务行业中,企业都比较重视自身利益,而较少关注客户的实际需求,认为只要产品能卖得出去即是能够为企业带来利润的,而对消费者层面关注的比较少。而当电子商务出现以后,打破了传统以企业为中心的市场销售观念,更多的产品生产出来是以消费者的实际需求为目标的,企业在生产过程中的原材料的采集、信息获取都是通过互联网进行,能够在全球范围内寻找更加物美价廉的原材料,降低了企业的生产成本,而生产出来的产品则更多的是向精细化发展,直接以客户的需求为产品生产的目标,对传统市场营销理念产生了深远的影响。以客户为中心的市场营销理念的产生,是电子商务发展的重要营销观念,注重消费者的个体需求,满足当前消费者追求个性化的思想。因此,当前发展情况下,企业不管是在生产产品还是在提供服务上,都应当明确当前的市场营销的主体是消费者。发展以人为本、客户为中心的市场营销理念,是企业发展的关键,唯有如此,企业才能跟上时代发展的步伐,与时俱进,在激烈的竞争中获得生存和发展。另外,企业在市场营销广告的宣传上的转变。电子商务的发展使得企业更加多的利用互联网平台进行广告宣传,而传统主要依靠电视、广播、报纸等营销手段进行市场推广营销,随着电子商务的出现,必然会减少企业对电视、广播、报纸等营销手段的依赖。同时,随着电子商务的发展,对企业产品价格管理提出了更高的要求。互联网的发展使得企业之间信息越来越公开,企业在互联网上获取的信息也是公开的,所以,要求企业要有一个科学合理的价格管理制度,以提高自身的竞争力。
2.市场营销方式的转变
传统市场营销因为受到时间空间的影响比较大,其营销的方式极其有限,同时企业生产、销售产品的环节比较复杂,层层下来,企业生产成本比较高,到消费者手中的商品价格也比较贵。而电子商务的出去,不仅解决了企业生产、销售中的关键问题,为企业节约成本,同时还可以为消费者提供更多物美价廉且符合消费者个性需求的商品。首先,企业市场营销环境上的转变。与传统的市场营销相比,电子商务是利用互联网这个平台进行产品的宣传营销的。随着互联网技术的发展,区域间、国家间的距离在缩小,整个地球在互联网环境下成为一个地球村,为企业市场营销提供广阔的外部环境,同时经济全球化的发展不断推进,为电子商务的发展提供了助力,企业的市场营销环境得以无限扩大。在电子商务中,企业和消费者通过互联网平台进行沟通交流,省去了传统市场营销的中间商环节,生产企业直接参与到销售中来,有利于生产企业在互联网平台中获得良好的价格优势,在市场竞争中获得良好的外部竞争环境,并且企业能够及时根据消费者的信息反馈进行产品改良,以此提供更多满足消费者需求的产品。其次,消费者消费行为的转变。电子商务的出现在一定程度上影响了消费者的消费行为,而消费者的消费行为又决定了企业市场营销的方向。现如今,在电子商务的影响下,青年群体的网络消费以非常迅猛的速度在发展,通过网络对2014年双十一淘宝网的销售数据,可以看出当前电子商务发展的速度是非常快的。消费者的个性需求能够在互联网平台中得到满足,企业也能够在互联网平台上及时发现消费者的各种需求,及时调整或提供更多的具有特色的商品,满足各类消费群体,有效避免了传统市场营销中因过度生产而产生的产品积压而亏损的问题。对于消费者来说,有利于获得质量好且价格便宜的商品,能够获得更多商品的选择权,可以根据自身的需要选择适合自己需要的产品,消费者付款主要通过电子渠道,方便安全。最后,电子商务技术手段的转变。从电子商务的产生开始,其自身发展也是在不断进行的,从最初简单的运用电子计算机信息技术进行客户的管理,到现在电子商务已经集各类先进的管理营销理念于一体,企业的电子商务获得了很大提高。
3.电子商务与传统市场营销的整合
在当前市场环境下,电子商务与传统市场营销是相辅相成、互相影响、互相制约的,两者相互依存。虽然说电子商务确实有着传统市场营销不可比拟的优势,且其当前发展的势头很猛,但是并不意味着传统的市场营销不应当重视。传统的市场营销在一定程度上是受到了电子商务的影响,但是在整个市场营销的过程中,电子商务还不能完全取代传统市场营销模式:首先,市场主体具有广泛性,当前电子商务比较受到青年人或者爱上网的人的关注,对于那些老年人或者不上网的人而言,传统市场营销还是具有很大空间的,特别是在广大的农村地区;其次,电子商务虽然为消费者提供了很大的选择空间,但是互联网平台的产品参差不齐,有时候很难选到质量好的,比如淘宝购物,对于很多已经有自己购物模式的人,其可能不愿意改变自己的消费习惯,更加愿意选择传统消费方式;最后,我们不能否认,传统营销模式能够接触到实物,营销人员的亲和力和可信度有时候是电子商务无法达到的。同时,电子商务在发展的过程中,仍存在很多的问题,由于它是一个新兴的事物,虽然已经有很高的认可度,但是其产品在售前、售后等关于销售的一系列问题,在实际中相应的制度规范尚存在漏洞。所以,在实践中,应当采取电子商务和传统市场营销相结合的方式进行,这样有利于企业电子商务向更高层次的发展,为企业提供更加好的发展平台,提高企业竞争力。
三、结语
随着我国经济的发展,互联网知识的不断普及,电子商务的发展日趋成熟,对当前市场营销产生了深厚的影响。企业为了更好地推进产品营销,广泛的将电子商务运用到市场营销中来,为企业带来更大的机会的同时也为企业的良好发展提供了更加广阔的平台。电子商务是对传统市场营销的重大变革,为企业的发展提供了更加宽广的舞台。企业在自身发展的过程中要重视电子商务的发展,坚持“以人为本、客户为主”的市场营销理念,努力通过互联网平台,为消费者生产出更多物美价廉的商品,满足消费者各类消费需求。同时也不能放弃传统市场营销,只有采取传统市场营销和电子商务相结合的方式,才能为电子商务发展提供良好的基础,在激烈的市场竞争环境中获得发展。
电子商务时代的到来给企业的市场贸易活动带来了一定的便利,在一定程度上表明商务活动已经开始进入到数字化时期。电子商务作为企业适应商务活动数字化的新型市场营销策略,虽然现阶段还无法取代传统市场营销,但是却给传统市场营销的现代化发展带来了一定的影响。所以企业要想在当今不断变化发展的市场趋势下更好的开展商务贸易活动,就应该重点发展电子商务,积极采取一定的措施应对市场营销,促进企业营销向着数字化、标准化和规范化方向发展。
一、电子商务对市场营销产生的影响
电子商务的发展是信息技术应用于市场经济活动的必然产物,也是市场营销业务的一个发展分支,对我国传统营销模式的现代化发展产生了一定的影响,具体体现在以下几个方面:
1.对市场营销环境产生的影响。
电子商务的不断变化和发展促使市场营销的内外部环境发生了一定的变化。首先,市场营销所涉及的市场范围不断扩大。电子商务随着信息技术进步得到了进一步的发展,在一定程度上冲破了传统营销模式的时空限制,使市场作用时间相对减少,但是在空间范围内却不断扩大。截至目前,市场营销中所涉及的市场已经成为世界性的市场,企业不论具体建设规模的大小,都可以根据自身性质通过电子商务在全世界范围内开展营销工作。其次,缩减营销环节。我国企业在使用传统市场营销模式进行相关产品的销售时,必然需要中间商进行层层流转,增加商品销售环节,减缓销售速度。而在电子营销模式下,企业可以选择使用互联网让商品直接与终端消费者接触,极大缩减中间销售环节,节省营销时间。再次,转变原有交易和支付方式。传统市场营销模式中,企业在交易活动中需要国家统一发行的货币进行支付。但是随着电子商务的发展,虚拟电子货币已经逐渐成为电子商务的主要支付手段,在一定程度上减少了市场上纸币的流通,为国家货币发行部门精简资金。最后,信息技术的快速传播和发展增加了企业和外界沟通的渠道。网络具有极强的信息传递功能,电子商务以网络为依托,可以借助网络信息传递速度的优势更加快速的向消费者传递产品信息,并及时获取消费者信息反馈,实现信息之间的良性交互。
2.对消费者产生的影响。
电子商务的发展必然影响着企业在经营管理活动中的目标市场定向,而这种目标市场定向与消费者的消费需求特征和新闻给变化息息相关。首先,在电子商务影响下,消费者需求呈现出新的发展特征。信息技术时代背景下,消费者受到国家整体消费观念的影响,追求新奇、新鲜的产品和创意,希望商品生产企业可以按照自身需求设定和制作相关产品。但是消费者的实际需求具有极大的差异性,因此在一定程度上带给企业相当大的创意负担,企业对一种商品的生产只能满足一小部分甚至个别消费者的需求。其次,对消费者的消费行为产生着相应的影响。网络销售环境为消费者的商品选择提供了方便,消费者可以同时对搜索引擎内的多家企业商品进行筛选,在联合对比中选择理想产品。同时,网络电子商务营销也可以使企业的产品生产更加具有针对性,在一定程度上摆脱了传统市场营销模式中大众化发展的弊端。
3.对营销理念的影响。
在传统市场营销模式中,多数企业的经营管理都以促进自身发展为目的,但是随着信息技术的发展、电子营销业务应用愈加广泛,致使企业经营管理理念发生了重大变化,促使企业产品的生产和消费活动都逐渐以客户需求为导向,在满足市场上众多消费者消费需求的同时,也带动了企业的进一步发展。现阶段,我国消费者受到现代文明的影响愈加追求个性化发展,企业为了满足消费者的市场需求尽量打造各种个性化产品,使企业能够获得更好的经济效益。可以说,电子商务所带来的新营销理念为企业发展提供了新的导向,推进企业现代化建设进程。
4.市场营销管理重心发生变化。
我国企业传统营销管理活动的重心是价格、商品、渠道、促销,但是随着电子商务的变化和发展,企业受信息技术和网络营销的影响,管理重心逐渐转变为客户、成本和良性沟通。从这一变化趋势看,新时期,企业营销管理活动更加关注消费者自身利益,开始以客户为管理导向,不再局限于传统的利己目的。企业生产相关商品的消费者趋向性更强,有利于消费者维护自身权益,促进企业在现代市场竞争中获得更好的发展。5.对技术和手段产生的影响。传统市场营销模式中,企业生产活动更加注重实用人工生产要素,市场营销的每一个环节都与人息息相关。但是随着社网络营销活动的发展,人工营销环节急剧缩减,消费者开始通过网络获取产品信息,企业使用一个客服员工便可完成与多个消费者的沟通和交流,营销手段发生变化。而在营销技术方面,随着电子商务模式的引入,企业经销技术也更加先进,打破传统营销技术受到时空限制的弊端,促使企业员工能够与终端消费者直接交易,减少交易环节,缩减交易时间和成本。
二、电子商务背景下企业市场营销管理措施
1.企业应该加强信息系统建设。
企业应该根据自身发展实际情况在网络上建立一些库存、人事、财务等方面的大型基本动态数据库,搜集企业各个方面的相关信息,使企业大量商品信息能够在网络上有序流通。企业只有及时对相关数据信息进行归纳和整理,并构建动态的数据库中心,才能为管理决策人员提供相应的数据支持。现阶段,我国众多企业都顺应时代潮流建设了相应的数据信息平台,为各个相关企业之间的有效交易提供重要途径,企业只要具备一定的数字化网络平台等,就可以正式参与到电子商务运作中。这在一定程度上为我国中小企业的现代化发展创造了良好机遇,使中小企业可以灵活运用自身成本优势与各大企业之间展开竞争。所以,为适应电子商务时代市场营销发展模式,相关企业领导应该高度重视企业信息化建设的重要性和必然性,以及其能够为企业经营发展提供的良好经济效益。要认真研究本企业的实际发展情况,结合实际加大信息化建设资金、技术投入,提升企业信息化建设掌控能力,为企业电子商务战略的现代化发展提供技术支持,促进企业持续健康发展。
2.生产具有差异性的产品。
为了满足消费者的市场需求,企业在产品产生中应该将每一个消费者看做是独立的个体,通过生产差异性的商品来满足不同消费个体众多类型的个性需求。实质上,相关数据显示,即使像汽车一样技术含量较高的商品,企业要想为消费者提供个性化的产品服务,仍然需要保证80%以上的相关组建是统一标准的。特别是在能够通过计算机进行商品辅助设计的今天,个性化商品生产已经逐渐由不可能转变为企业生存发展基本能力。所以,企业应该在商品生产之前不断研究消费者的真实需求和行为习惯、消费趋势等,全面把握消费市场,结合市场需求研究能够适应市场的个性化商品服务,从而真正在经营发展活动中抢占商机,推进企业持续健康发展。
3.重视知识管理和客户管理。
企业在互联网时代经营运作的成功,取决于企业对自身战略性过程相关知识体系的科学管理,这一体系也是企业确保自身电子商务营销系统健康稳定运行的关键。同时,企业的管理流程也应该与网络经营发展新变化趋势相适应。现阶段,我国中小企业在激烈市场竞争中构建持久竞争优势必须要结合企业战略发展需要,科学使用这些管理流程和知识体系,建设企业独特优势发展核心。客户关系是电子商务背景下企业加强知识管理活动的重要手段。强化客户管理管理重点在于改善企业自身和相关客户之间关系,促进企业和谐发展的有效手段,但是同时客户关系管理也包含着企业内部组织机构选择、争取、判断、发展以及保持客户所必须实施的全部商业过程。企业要想在现代社会市场竞争环境中健康开展电子商务营销活动,就必须合理建立消费者信息数据资源库,集中分析消费者不断变化着的商品需求,同每一个客户发展长期的私人交易关系,关注网上消费者。企业必须自觉主动的改善与客户和消费者之间的关系,通过个性化产品和优质服务等手段与消费者建立长期稳定客户关系,与相关客户共同构建企业价值,树立并传播企业品牌,为企业持续健康发展创造条件。
4.发展物流和服务。
在电子商务背景下,企业应该将自身物流管理纳入到电子商务发展模式中,并且鉴于物流管理对网络营销产生着重要的影响,因此,企业应该从营销活动的起点也就是相关产品的生产和设计环节入手对企业物流管理活动的进行强化,逐步使企业相关产品的原材料、半成品和已经完成的产成品以最低成本进行高效运输,优化企业产品营销渠道。企业可以根据自身性质以及行业特征合理选择与自身发展相适应的物流模式,完善商品流通渠道,为现代化企业营销提供物流支持。此外,企业还应该在管理活动中促进电子商务部门与物流部门的合理整合,结合产品、运输渠道、价格以及促销方式等方面实际情况制定科学的营销战略,并由营销与物流部门进行协同管理。这样,企业营销部门可以根据自身物流能力和成本制定营销决策,物流部门也可以根据相关营销活动的实际发展情况积极采取一定措施为企业营销活动提供一定的物流支持。
5.培训电子商务人才。
电子商务业务建设的关键点是人,在整个社会系统中,电子商务系统首先作为一个社会系统为社会上的人提供商品和服务;从行业自身发展角度看,电子商务系统实际上是一种围绕相关商品、服务所涉及的各方代表和相关利益人共同组成的关系网络;从电子商务系统本身发展看,虽然企业在发展中重视计算机网络技术在交易活动中可能产生的重要作用,但是仍然认为在交易活动中发挥主要作用的是高素质人才。电子商务是信息技术现代化和商务现代化发展的有机结合体,在建设中需要大量的高素质复合型人才。我国中小企业应该积极采取一定的措施培养和引进一批具有较高素质,能够熟练掌握计算机技术与经营管理技术的人才,推进企业电子商务系统建设进程。
三、结语
总而言之,随着信息技术的发展,电子商务时代的到来已经逐渐成为一种不可逆转的经济发展趋势,对当前社会上的传统市场营销产生着一定的影响。所以企业应该在建设发展中积极采取一定的措施,清醒认识电子商务发展对企业现代化建设的重要性,在尊重经济发展客观规律的基础上开展商务活动,规避电子商务风险,为企业赢得市场竞争优势,促进企业在现代社会形势下得到进一步发展。
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中国正在面临新型城市化、工业化,正在逐步进入老龄化社会,流动人口约2.36亿,其中75%由农村流向城市,在工程建设中,水库移民后期扶持人口约2700万人。移民问题正是当下的社会热点问题,工程移民的安置,社会保障制度的衔接,大规模移民对政治、经济、文化的影响,公共服务供需变化,社会政策和社会管理,地区经济增长要素的改变等亟需解决,所以,移民研究势在必行。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的:移民政策的影响因素与启示探讨相关论文。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
移民政策的影响因素与启示探讨全文如下:
近年来,随着全球化趋势的发展,人口流动的全球化显得最为明显,具体表现为国际移民的数量持续增长。 从联合国 2013 年 9 月 11 日公布的世界移民报告数据来看,2013 年全世界共有 2.32 亿移民,占全球总人口的 3.2%,来自发展中国家的移民占 69%,发达国家占 31%. 这一数据表明世界移民的规模日益庞大起来, 移民问题体现着全球化的特质,是一个世界性的问题,它所带来的影响是多方面的。 Howard F.Chang(2007)在研究国际人口自由化迁移的过程中 ,发现 国际人口自由迁移不仅使得全球范围内的经济得到增长,缩小了国际收入差距,还促进了科学技术的进步,推动了国际贸易的发展,使得对劳动力市场的多元化需求普遍上升。 因此在全球范围内,技术移民的净效应表现为积极的,它能促进知识创造和经济增长(Mark C. Regets,2001)。
移民问题产生的影响是复杂的,如何处理这一问题关系着一国经济和社会的稳定与发展。 政策制定者逐渐重视移民政策对国家人口迁移的影响,看到了国家这一主体在人口迁移中扮演的重要角色,通过国家政府的强制性手段,最大限度地影响人们的迁移决策,决定移民的发展、规模与迁移方向。 移民政策开始发挥它的积极作用,并日渐受到学者们的关注,在当下已经发展成为一项新的议题。
在国际移民研究领域,针对移民是如何发生的有着丰富的研究成果。比较着名的有 E.Ravenstien 的推拉理论、OdedStark 的新家庭经济迁移理论以及刘易斯的二元劳动力市场理论。 21 世纪以来,学者们纷纷以具体的国家为例对迁移的动机进行了新的探索。 Thomas K. Bauer 和 Magnus Lofstrom等(2001)对 12 个经济合作与发展组织国的数据进行研究,发现移民的跨国迁移是为了获取更多的报酬,最大化收入总量。 迁移过程中的难民则是由自己国家的政治状况导致的,社会动荡、战乱等因素迫使人们背井离乡。 另外,影响国际移民的重要因素还包括地区工资差异、移民的成本、连锁迁移以及政府的经济激励 (Barry R.Chiswick,Timothy J. Hatton,2002)。 Mathias Czaika 和 Marc Vothknecht(2012)还认为移民相比非移民来说具有更远大的目标,他们进行迁移是为了实现自身价值,改善自己的经济状况,收获未来的幸福生活。 除了政治、经济的影响,迁移行为还受其他因素的影响。 EmekBasker(2002)认为教育因素对迁移有着重要影响 ,他讨 论了美国公民的教育程度和迁移行为之间的关系, 把教育作为自变量研究迁移的变化,发现随着教育程度的提升,人们迁移的倾向也增加。
国家制定的移民政策是决定移民迁移、 以何种形式迁移的重要因素。 个人的迁移愿望主要是由于经济、社会、政治以及家庭方面的原因导致的。 国家的移民政策最终决定人们的迁移行为能否实现,移民政策的制定同样受到政治、经济、社会等因素的影响。
(一)政治因素
移民政策深受政治因素的影响。 政府以及各种政党势力由 于 政 治 原 因 , 对 人 口 迁 移 进 行 规 范 和 强 制 . CarineGuerassimoff(2003)对法国的移民政策进行了研 究 ,他认为移民政策在很大程度上取决于政治因素, 指出法国的不同政党对移民问题的态度是截然相反的, 右翼党派极力排斥外来移民,左翼势力则坚决支持外国移民的进入。 此外,欧洲其他国家如荷兰、意大利等,政党政治对移民政策的影响也是颇为显着的。极右派具有强大的民族正义感和排外心理,为了迎合本国公民,获取他们的信任和支持,禁止接受外来移民和难民。
利益集团对移民政策的影响也是极其明显的。 传统的移民国存在着不同的种族和民族,由于种族主义的盛行,白人与黑人形成了不同的利益群体。 黑人通过成立协会组织来反抗白人的歧视与压迫,保障自身的利益。 19 世纪以来,美国的工会组织持反对移民的态度,原因是外来移民的流入,使当地人的就业遭受了极大的影响,因此,这些工会、教会等组织对政府提倡的鼓励技术性移民持反对态度。
(二)经济因素
经济因素对各国制定移民政策具有决定性的影响。 一国在考虑移民政策的过程中, 往往结合当前国家的劳动力市场情况以及人口的数量和结构,通过政策来删选所需人才,确保所需的人力资源。
众所周知,西方发达国家的低出生率和人口老龄化问题尤为突出,老龄化问题尤其对劳动力市场的结构影响较为突出。 因此政府在制定移民政策时,不得不考虑劳动力需求这一现实因素。 法国最初对移民实行无限制政策,就与法国的人口数量密切相关,需要大量的外来青年以满足本国劳动力市场的需求。 此外,加拿大移民政策的制定与加拿大长短期目标有关, 加拿大的长期目标是实现经济和人口数量的增长,短期目标是满足当前劳动力市场的需求。
许多学者在研究中还发现,移民对接收国的就业和福利有很大影响, 政府不得不重视这一问题。 Tim Krieger 和Steffen Minter(2007)发现有些国家的移民政策中强调限制非技术移民的进入,原因是一方面他们认为移民是净福利接受者,担心移民对本国的工资水平和失业率造成影响;另一方面本地人有严重的排外情绪,政府担心移民会带来一系列安全问题和社会文化问题。
(三)社会文化与民众心理
不同国家因具有不同的社会文化信仰,对移民政策的制定也有很大差异,这其中涉及到了移民的同化问题、民众的态度等。 崇尚自由主义的国家在对待移民问题上,也是自由、不加干预的。 种族主义盛行的国家,会采取各种手段限制移民的流入。
Carine Guerassimoff(2003)在分析法国移民政策时指出 ,在文化这一层面上,法国对移民政策有很大争议,实质上是法国存在的多元文化的矛盾与冲突所导致的,是对民族融合理念的严峻考验。 20 世纪 80 年代,法国学者就移民数量增长这一现状,对群众进行了民意测评。 结果表明,将近一半的公民认为当前法国的外来人口过多,他们无法顺利融入法国社会中,若政府不能很好地对移民进行控制,社会各不同种族团体之间的关系会造成紧张,整个社会将会面临严峻的考验。
民众对移民的态度也影响着移民政策的制定。 民众普遍认为移民对他们而言是一种极大的威胁,他们往往采取行动抵制外来者的进入,并对政府施加压力,希望政府对移民进行限制以保护他们原有的权益。Timothy J. Hatton,Jeffrey G.Williamson(2009)发现发达国家的公民比较敌视外来人口,种族主义、排外主义和民族主义情绪都促使公民在选举中对限制移民的政策进行投票。 此外,接收国家中还存在着一类特殊的群体---移民群体,事实证明大批的国际移民对接收国的社会经济影响也是十分重大的。 他们当中有一部分成为了接收国的说客、国家议员,在该国具有一定的社会地位,并且大批的移民还可能影响一国的文化认同、选票结构以及政治势力分布。 这类群体则坚持支持外来移民进入,反对政府限制移民的政策。
一个国家和地区政策的制定都是为它的经济、社会和政治利益所服务的,移民政策也毫不例外。 移民政策是否合理关系到一国或地区的经济能否快速发展、社会能否稳定,民族能否和谐。 如果说个人的迁移意愿受个人思想和家庭成员所支配,那么他能否顺利迁移、以何种方向迁移、迁移到何处去都取决于国家的移民政策。 从美国的移民政策变化来看,每一时期移民政策的制定都是政府当局充分考虑当时的形势所采取的最有效手段。 国家的劳动力短缺时,就会打开国门,鼓励外籍劳工进入;移民带来的负面影响以及排外主义情绪又使得接收国关起大门,多次限制移民。
总之,移民问题就像一把双刃剑,它所造成的影响是多方面的。 各国政府应正确看待这一问题,根据本国的发展状况和所处的形势,充分考虑本国的政治、经济、社会因素,制定合理的移民政策,更好地引导和规范国家人口的迁移行为,发挥移民政策积极的引导作用。 在经济全球化的发展趋势下,应尤其注重对高科技人才争夺,采取吸引高技术人才的移民政策,对于促进各国的科技进步和经济社会快速发展具有重大意义。
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