为您找到与言语交际和非语言交际的关系相关的共200个结果:
摘 要:语言是人类最重要的交际工具,是音义结合的词汇和语法体系;言语是在特定的环境中,为完成特定交际任务时对语言的使用。瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔对“语言”和“言语”区分的理论在现代语言学史上产生了极其重要的影响。本文分别探讨了“语言”和“言语”的定义、特点,以及它们之间的相互关系及范畴的划分,在此基础之上,进一步阐释“语言”和“言语”理论对外语教学的重要启示和影响。
关键词:语言言语关系外语教学
早在19世纪初,德国的语言学家洪堡特就提出过区分语言和言语是十分必要的。“现代语言学之父”瑞士语言学家索绪尔在他的现代语言学奠基之作《普通语言学教程》中开创性地对“语言”(langue)和“言语”(parole)进行了全面的区分和阐述,并首次提出了“语言的语言学”和“言语的语言学”等概念。自此,语言和言语的关系受到了全世界语言学界的广泛关注。二十世纪六十年代至今,在我国语言学界开展了多次关于“语言”和“言语”的大讨论,讨论的核心问题是有无必要区分语言和言语,以及由此引发出来的一系列问题。许多学者各抒己见,发表了不同的看法,但是语言和言语必须区分开来这一事实已被越来越多的人接受,并且这一理论的运用及其在外语教学中的启示和影响也成为语言研究者们的研究对象。
索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》这部著作中,用了不少生动的比喻来描写语言中的现象和问题。在探讨语言和言语的关系之前,我们先来看一个奇怪的数学公式:
1+1+1……=1(索绪尔,2003:41)
这是索绪尔用来形容语言和言语关系的一个公式。从数学理念上看,我们可以完全推翻这一公式,因为在数学领域,无数个1相加永远不可能再等于1,那么这位语言学大师建立这一公式的理据何在呢?
从语言学的角度看,这个数学公式可以被“翻译”成:
言语+言语+言语+……=某种语言
它的含义是:无数言语的总和等于语言。等号前的“1”代表一个个言语作品,等号后的“1”代表一种语言,如汉语、英语、法语,但是语言和言语的关系远远不止公式所描写的这么简单,语言并不是言语作品的简单积累,而是在言语中体现着语言。
人们把语言和言语的关系比喻成建筑材料、建筑规则与建筑物的关系,其中建筑材料相当于语言的词汇,建筑规则相当于语言的语法构造,建筑物则是具体的言语作品;还可以把语言比喻成下象棋,棋子相当于词汇,象棋规则相当于语法,棋谱相当于言语作品,从中可以理解有限的词汇和语法规则可以创造出无限的言语作品,言语作品有好有坏,而语言是没有优劣之分的;语言和言语的关系还像五线谱、音阶符号和乐曲的关系。言语的过程与作曲的过程是有相似之处的,它们都需要材料和规则,都可以创造出表达一定的思想感情倾向,具有个人风格的作品;因为在语言和言语的相互关系中还存在着质与量的问题,我们还可以把语言比做阿拉伯数字和这些数字的组合规则,把言语比做这些数字组合成的具体的数字,利用0到9这10个阿拉伯数字,通过一定的组合规则,我们可以表达出无尽的数量来。语言中的词,也像阿拉伯数字一样,在一定时期中是有限的,而语言的语法,也与阿拉伯数字在表达具体数目时一样具有一定的组合规则;最后,还可以把语言比做绘画用的画笔和颜色,雕塑用的刀具和雕塑原料,把言语比做国画与雕像。这个比喻有助于我们了解言语的修辞色彩和语言对于言语修辞的影响(计永佑,1983:56)。
从索绪尔提出的一个公式,和上述人们常做的五个比喻中,我们可以简单归纳一下语言和言语的相互关系:语言和言语的关系可以用对立统一的哲学观点来进行解释。“语言和言语相互依赖,无论是从整体发生学还是个体发生学的角度看,先有言语再有语言,语言存在于言语之中”(岑运强、石艳华,2007:12),语言和言语一方面有着本质的区别,另一方面又有着紧密的联系。语言和言语的区别是明显的。岑运强教授认为,区分语言和言语的标准有四个:意义标准(是否表达完整的意义)、形式标准(有无具体、固定的模式)、功能标准(能否脱离语境)和数量标准(有限还是无限)(卢春霞,2007:181)。
总之,语言和言语是一般与个别的关系,是抽象与具体的关系。因此,研究语言必须从观察言语着手,注意言语中表现出的大量普遍的语言事实。
索绪尔的语言和言语二分理论被广泛应用于第二语言教学研究。“语言”和“言语”是外语教学中既对立又统一的两个方面,它们既相互区别又相互渗透。“外语教学中的‘语言’指的是语言的结构规则和使用规则,传授‘语言’的实践活动我们称之为语言教学,语言教学的主要目标是使学习者掌握‘语言’的体系知识,从而为言语运用打下基础。‘言语’是指平时的言谈话语,传授‘言语’的实践活动我们称之为言语教学,言语教学的目标是培养学生听、说、读、写的能力,从而运用语言规则进行语言交际”(毕彦华,2007:123)。下面我们从三个方面分别探讨语言和言语理论在外语教学实践中的应用。
“言语—语言—言语”语言学习的模式是每个婴儿学习母语的必经途径,也是学习外语的有效途径。学习母语时,往往是从只言片语入手,模仿外界声音,这就是言语阶段;与此同时,在不断的言语积累中,我们有意识或无意识地掌握该语言的系统,这就到了语言阶段;然而,掌握一种语言的系统,并不是我们的目的。我们在习得过程中会运用这个系统去说、去写,这就又回到言语阶段。
当然,这几个阶段并不能截然分开。在学习和教授外语时,我们应当努力利用这一模式,在三个阶段的教学中让外语学习者更好地掌握语言规律和并且在实践中熟练运用该门语言。当然学习外语不能拥有学习母语的语言环境,所以在外语教学的最初阶段可以有一个非常短暂的纯语言教学阶段,如教英语字母或国际音标。在这一阶段,语言教学活动量大于言语教学活动量,因为学生掌握的语言知识还非常有限,不足以大量展开生成和理解新话语的言语教学。随着时间的增长,语言教学活动量应呈递减趋势,相反,言语教学活动量则呈递增趋势。因为在这一阶段,学生慢慢掌握语言的语音、词汇、语法规则等,能较自由地生成句子,开展言语教学的自由度增大。进入高年级外语学习阶段,言语活动应大大超过语言活动,以便让学生更灵活地使用语言。
1.语言能力包括语音能力、词汇能力、语义能力和语法能力。语音能力包括音位能力、语音能力、语调能力,以及外语的口语能力等。语音能力的培养,要用语言的方法,如分析语音的声学属性、模仿发音部位和方法、进行语音对比等;更要用言语的方法,如用强化方法大量的听外语话语,在口语实践中发展语音能力等。词汇语义能力包括辨别词性、理解词义的能力,区别同义词、同形词、同音词的能力等;词汇语义能力的培养除依靠外语教学中词汇工作外,更要让词语在不同的话语中重复出现,在话语中领会词语的细微含义和修辞色彩。语法能力包括分析词语词汇特点的能力、分析词类和句子成分的能力、辨认搭配关系及造句的能力等。语法能力的培养除靠分析语法外,更要在言语中把握语法规则的具体化,在话语中活用语法规则。
2.言语能力包括听、说、读、写、译等,它是指学生使用语言的能力。学习外语的主要目的是进行社会交际,所以言语能力的培养是相当重要的。一般来说,外语教学初阶段的重点在读说,但口语不能脱离书面语而单独发展,听说读写要与言语体系教学密切配合;外语教学的第二阶段着重解决读写,一方面培养读写能力,另一方面通过读写继续加强听说,把听说能力提到高级阶段;第三个阶段着重解决翻译,在听说读写的基础上解决翻译,从翻译实践中获取更大的发展。
“语言”和“言语”的关系提示我们在教材的编排上,应该以课文和言语练习、活用练习为主,要重视实践运用和语言技能的培养。过去,许多教材以语法翻译为主,偏重书面语,而忽视了口头语言的重要性。虽然有课文和语法的内容,但是单词表、语法语音的理论知识和机械性练习的分量却不可忽视。这种教材是以教授语言体系为主的,言语的教学此时显得微不足道,离开了言语,单词和语法规则等知识不容易被记忆,而且就算被记住,在实际运用中,学生们无法将之与具体语境联系起来,仅有的语言知识显得苍白无力。因此,在教材中,正确把握语言和言语的关系十分重要。凡出现新的语言现象时,就应当有相应的课文来巩固,而且课文内容应当尽量接近实际的语言情境。此外,语言现象的出现,要注意常用性和复现率,从而使学生加深印象,学以致用。课后练习应该以活用练习为主,机械练习为辅。
语言和言语的关系是辩证统一的关系,它们既紧密联系,又相互区别,更互为前提。
言语总是以语言的共同规则作为活动基础的;而语言总是从言语的运用中概括和丰富规则,是一种不断运动着的社会现象,语言存在于群众之中,存在于不断使用之中,存在于言语之中。区分语言和言语具有重要的意义。第一,在语言学研究中,区分语言和言语具有重大的理论和实践意义,有助于科学地认识语言;第二,有助于确定语言学这门学科的研究对象;第三,有助于理解语言和言语的不同性质和特征,分别发展语言的语言学和言语的语言学;第四,区分语言和言语,也有助于语言教学,尤其是外语教学方法的改进。我们应当把语言学的理论与外语教学的实践密切结合起来,最大限度地发展外语教学。
[1]毕彦华,索绪尔.“语言”和“言语”的理论与对外汉语语法教学.语言文字修辞,2007,12:122-124.
[2]岑运强,石艳华.二十年来语言和言语问题研究述评.井冈山学院学报.2007,9:11-16.
[3]费尔迪南·德·索绪尔.普通语言学教程.北京:商务印书馆,2003.
[4]计永佑.语言学趣谈.北京:书目文献出版社,1983.
[5]卢春霞.“语言”和“言语”的概念辨析及其对教学的影响.时代经贸,2007,5:181-183.
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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身势语Body Language是一个民族文化的组成部分,在当今跨文化交际越来越频繁的世界里,了解其他国家的无声语言有助于促进交流,避免误解和尴尬。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:浅谈非语言交际中的身势语相关论文。仅供大家参考!
浅谈非语言交际中的身势语全文如下:
“身势语”同语言一样,都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中,身势语的意义并不完全相同。各民族有不同的非语言交际方式.例如:不同的民族在谈话时,对双方保持多大距离才合适有不同的看法;谈话双方身体接触的次数多少因文化不同而各异;在目光接触这一方面也有许多规定:看不看对方,什么时候看,看多久,什么人可以看,什么人不可以看;在某些场合下,在中国和讲英语的国家无论微笑还是大笑,通常表示友好﹑赞同﹑满意﹑高兴﹑愉快,但是在某些场合,中国人的笑会引起西方人的反感;打手势时动作稍有不同,就会与原来的意图有所区别,对某种手势理解错了,也会引起意外的反应等等。因此,要用外语进行有效的交际,在说某种语言时就得了解说话人的手势,动作,举止等所表示的意思。而有些权威人士认为两者相互依存。在大多数情况下这是对的。在某些情况下,人体动作与所说的话不一致,口头说的与身势语表达的意思不一样。这时要借助其他信息或从整个情况中猜测说话人的意思,从某种意义上说,一切身势语都要放在一定的情景下去理解;忽视了整个情景就会发生误解。而通过中美身势语对比研究表明,两者有相似的地方,也有差异的地方,说明了解另一种语言中身势语的重要性。可见,真正掌握两种语言的人在换用另一种语言说话时也要换用另一种身势语。这样才能达到更好的交际效果。
关键词: 非语言交际 身势语 不同文化 不同方式
“Body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture. But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures; one could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at; smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment, and, this is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries, however, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on.
So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading. A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities and diversities of body language. It shows the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better.
Key words:nonverbal communication body language different culture different ways
1. Introduction …… 1
2. The necessity and importance of learning body language on nonverbal communication …… 2
3. The concrete types and application of the body language …… 3
3.1 Types of body language …… 3
3.1.1 Distance between people conversing …… 3
3.1.2 Physical contact …… 3
3.1.3 Eye contact …… 4
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter …… 6
3.1.5 Gestures …… 6
3.2 Application of the body language …… 6
3.2.1 Greetings …… 6
3.2.2 Signs of affection …… 8
3.2.3 Physical contact in life …… 8
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language …… 9
4. Conclusion …… 12
When a Chinese converses with a Canadian or American friend of the opposite sex, would it be indecent to be looking at the other person?
If two young friends of the same sex walk with their arms around each other’s shoulders or hold hands, would this be regarded by English-speaking people as proper?
Does nodding the head mean “yes”, and shaking the head mean “no” in all cultures?
There are not questions about language, but about body language, about nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication, composed of pictures, dresses, eye contact, spatial signals, gestures and so on, is as important as verbal communication.
People communicate in many different ways. One of the most important ways, of course, is through language. Moreover, when language is written it can be completely isolated from the context in which it occurs; it can be treated as if it were an independent and self-contained process.
Like all animals, people communicate by their actions as well as by the noises they make. It is a sort of biological anomaly of man—something like the giraffe’s neck, or the pelican’s beak—that our vocal noises have so for outgrown in importance and frequency all our other methods of signaling to one another. Language is obviously essential for human beings, but it is not the whole story of human communication. Not by a long shot.
The study of nonverbal communication should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situation body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what nonverbal communication communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a case, all nonverbal communication should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
Although we may not realize it, when we converse with others we communicate by much more than words. By our expressions, gestures and other body movements we send messages to these around us a smile and an outstretched hand show welcome. A form is a sign of displeasure. Nodding one’s head means agreement—“Yes”. Waving an outstretched hand with open palm is the gesture for “goodbye”. Leaning back in one’s seat and yawning at a talk or lecture shows lack of interest, boredom. These gestures have come to be accepted in general as having the meanings mentioned, at last to Chinese and Americans. There are parts of the way in which we communicate. This “body language”, like our verbal language, is also a part of our culture.
But not all body language means the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. The answers to the questions at the beginning of this chapter are all “no”. Even nodding the head may have a different meaning. To Nepalese, Sri Lankans, some Indians and some Eskimos it means not “yes”, but “no”. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should know also the gestures, body movements, mannerisms and etc. that accompany a particular language.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research—Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn t have grown into a normal person". It s also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students characters.
3.1 Types of body language
3.1.1 Distance between people conversing
Watch an Arab and an Englishman in conversation. The Arab, showing friendliness in the manner of his people, will stand close to the Englishman. The latter will move back, watching to the Englishman. The Arab will then move forward to be closer; the Englishman will keep moving backward. By the end of the conversation, the two may be quite a distance from the conversation; the two may be quite a distance from the place where they were originally standing!
Here, distance between the two is the key factor. Different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing. According to studies, it seems there are four main distances in American social and business relations: intimate, personal, social, and public. Intimate distance ranges from direct physical contact to a distance of about 45 centimeters; this is for people’s most private relations and activities, between man and wife, for example. Personal distance is about 45—80 centimeters and is most common when friends, acquaintances and relatives converse. Social distance may be anywhere from about 1.30 meters to 3 meters; people who work together, or people doing business, as well as most of those in conversation at social gatherings tend to keep a distance is farther than any of the above and is generally for speakers in public and for teachers in classrooms.
The important thing to keep in mind is that most English-speaking people do not like people to be too close. Being too far apart, of course, may be awkward, but being too close makes people uncomfortable, unless there is a reason, such as showing affection or encouraging intimacy. But that is another matter.
3.1.2 Physical contact
The appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures. Figures from a study offer interesting insight into this matter. Pairs of individuals sitting and chatting in college shops in different places were observed for at last one hour each. The number of times that either one touched the other in that one hour was recorded, as follows: London, 0; Gainesville, Florida, 2; Pairs, 10; San Juan, Puerto Rico, 180. These figures speak for themselves. (Robinett, 1978)
In English-speaking countries, physical contact is generally avoided in conversation among ordinary friends or acquaintances. Merely touching someone may cause an unpleasant reaction. If one touches another person accidentally, he/she usually utters an apology such as “Sorry, Oh, I’m sorry, Excuse me.”
In China, a common complaint of western mothers is that Chinese often fondle their babies and very small children. Such behavior—whether touching, patting, hugging or kissing—can be quite embarrassing and awkward for the mothers. They know that no harm is meant, and that such gestures are merely signs of friendliness or affection, therefore they cannot openly show their displeasure. On the other hand, such actions in their own culture would be considered rude, intrusive and offensive and could arouse a strong dislike and even repugnance. So the mothers often stand by and watch in awkward silence, with mixed emotions, even when the fondling is by Chinese friends or acquaintances.
Going beyond the milder forms of touching, we shall take up the matter of hugging and embracing in public. This practice is fairly common among women in many countries. And in most of the more industrialized countries, it occurs frequently between husband and wife and close members of the family when meeting after a period of absence. Hugging and embracing among men, however, is a different matter. Among Arabs, Russians, French, and in several of the east European and Mediterranean countries, a warm hug and a kiss on the cheeks are a standard way of welcome. The same is true with some Latin Americans. In East Asia and in the English-speaking countries, though, the practice is seldom seen. A simple handshake is the custom. The story is told of what happened not long ago when the Japanese prime minister at the time, Mr. Fukuda, went to the U.S. on a state visit. When he stepped out of his car in front of the white house, he was greeted by the American president whit a “bear hug”. The prime minister was flabbergasted; others of the Japanese delegation were amazed; many Americans were surprised—it was so unusual and so unexpected. If the president had bowed low in Japanese fashion, it would have been less a surprise than to be greeted in a way so uncommon in either country!
The matter of physical contact between members of the same sex in English-speaking countries is a delicate one. Once past childhood, the holding of hands, or walking with an arm around another’s shoulder is not considered proper. The implication is homosexuality, and homosexuality generally arouses strong social disapproval in these countries.
3.1.3 Eye contact
Eye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at. These passages from the book Body Language (Fast, 1971) are amusing as well as informative:
“Tow strangers seated across from each other in a railway dining car have the option of introducing themselves and facing a meal of inconsequential and perhaps boring talk, or ignoring each other and desperately trying to avoid each other’s glance. A writer, describing such a situation in an essay, wrote, ‘they re-read the menu, they fool with the cutlery, they inspect their own fingernails as if seeing them for the first time. Comes the inevitable moment when glances meet, but they meet only to shoot instantly away and out the window for an intent view of the passing scene.’ ”
He points out that with people who are unfamiliar:
“We must void staring at them, and yet we must also avoid ignoring them… We look at them long enough to make it quite clear that we see them, and then we immediately look away.
There are different formulas for the exchange of glances depending on where the meeting takes place. If you pass someone in the street you may eye the oncoming person till you are about eight feet apart, then you must look away as you pass. Before the eight-foot distance is reached, each will signal in which direction he will pass. This is done with a brief look in that direction. Each will veer slightly, and the passing is done smoothly.”
In conversations with people who know each other, however, American custom demands that there should be eye contact. This applies to both the speaker and the listener. For either one not to look at the other person could imply a number of things, among which are fear, contempt, uneasiness, guilt, indifference, even in public speaking there should be plenty of eye contact. For a speaker to “burry his nose in his manuscript”, to read a speech instead of looking at and talking to hid audience, as some Chinese speakers are in the habit of doing, would be regarded as inconsiderate and disrespectful.
In conversation, a person shows that he is listening by looking at the other person’s eyes or face. If the other person is speaking at some length, the listener will occasionally make sounds like “Hmm”, “Ummm”, or nod his head to indicate his attention. If he agrees with the speaker, he may nod or smile. If he disagrees or has some reservations, he may slant his head to one side, raise an eyebrow, have a quizzical look.
Staring at people or holding a glance too long is considered improper in English-speaking countries. Even when the look may be one of appreciation—as of beauty—it may make people uneasy and embarrassed. Many Americans traveling abroad find the stares of the local people irritating. They become extremely self-conscious and often end up quite indignant about the “rudeness” of the people there, not realizing that the practice may be quite common in the country and may be nothing more than curiosity. Many English-speaking people in china have heard to complain about this.
“The language of the eyes”—one of the most common and ancient ways of exchanging feelings between boys and girls, men and women—is especially elaborate in the United States. Much study has been made of this: how people of the opposite sex show interest or indifference, encouragement or discouragement, approval or disapproval, affection or aversion. However, there are many differences even within the United States. Men use their eyes in different ways than women; there are differences of age, class or social status and geographical region; there are differences of ethnic background.
The story is told of a teenage Puerto Rican girl in a New York high school who was taken with a number of other girls to the principal for suspected smoking. Although there was no proof of any wrongdoing and although she had a good record, the principal decided she was guilty and suspended her. “There was something sly and suspicious about her,” he said in his report. “She just wouldn’t meet my eye. She wouldn’t look at me.”
When she was questioned by the principal it was true that she kept staring at the floor and refused to meet his eye. And in English there is a saying “Don’t trust anyone who won’t look at you in the eye.”
It so happened that one of the teachers had a Latin American background and knew about Puerto Rican culture. After talking with the girl’s parents, he went to the principal and explained that according to Puerto Rican culture, a good girl “does not meet the eyes of an adult.” Such behavior, he explained, “is a sign of respect and obedience.”
Fortunately, the principal accepted the explanation, admitted his mistake and the matter was settled properly. This difference in interpreting a simple eye gesture was a lesson in cultural diversity that he would not easily forget.
Rules about eye-language are numerous and complex. What has been mentioned gives a good idea of this; we shall not go further into detail.
3.1.4 Smiles and laughter
Smiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. This is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries. However, there are situations when some Chinese will laugh that will cause negative reactions by westerners. To illustrate, here is an excerpt from a letter by an American to a Chinese friend on nonverbal gestures that often cause cross-cultural misunderstanding:
“…One is the different meaning of laughter in China and American. When an American is parking his bicycle, for example, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. I have seen the same thing happen in the dining room, when a foreigner drops a plate quite by accident and feels badly and Chinese onlookers laugh, compounding his discomfort and causing anger and bad feeling.”
Such laughter, of course, is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he be a foreigner or a Chinese. It can convey a number of feelings: don’t take it so seriously; laugh it off, it’s nothing; such things can happen to any of us, etc. However, for people unaware of this attitude, the reaction to such laughter is usually quite unpleasant and often generates ill feeling towards those laughing.
3.1.5 Gestures
Gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended. A wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions.
A well-known case is a gesture made by Winston Churchill, the doughty prime minister who led Britain through the Second World War. As he appeared before a large crowd, he was greeted with cheers and applause. The occasion was a momentous one and Churchill flashed the “V for victory” sign—with the forefinger and middle finger raised to form a “V”. Whether by mistake or ignorance, instead of facing the palm of his hand to the front, he made the “V” with the back of his hand towards the audience. Some in the crowd applauded; some gasped; some broke out in laughter. The prime minister’s gesture, as given, meant quite something else. Instead of “V for victory”, it meant something dirty; it was an obscene gesture!
3.2 Application of the body language
3.2.1 Greetings
Hoa has just arrived from Vietnam. Her cousin Phuong and some of his American friends are waiting at the airport to greet her. Hoa and Phuong are both excited about this meeting because they have been separated for seven years. As soon as Hoa enters the passenger terminal, Phuong introduces her to his friends Tom, Don, and Charles. Tom steps forward and hugs and kisses Hoa. She pushes him away and bursts into tears.
Among Chinese from Vietnam, if a boy hugs and kisses a girl in public, he insults her. Chinese culture in Vietnam is very strict about this, especially in the rural areas where Hoa grew up. She described her village: “After children are ten years old, boys and girls cannot play together. A boy and girl cannot date without their parents’ approval. A man and woman cannot hug or kiss if they’re not married.”
In Hoa’s village if anyone violated these rules, the villagers punished the girl by forcing her to kneel on the ground so they could spit at her and throw rocks at her. No wonder that Puong’s American friends frightened Hoa. She did not know what punishment for public hugging and kissing might be meted out to her in this country. She confused Tom, who by American standards was dong the right thing.
Eventually Hoa learned to be comfortable when greeted with hugs and kisses, accepting them as merely perfunctory acts.
Analogous to this situation is another in which Duane, a Chinese American employee, invited his non-Chinese boss, Mr. Keck, to a large family celebration. When Mr. Keck arrived, he shook hands with Duane and, when introduced to Duane’s grandmother, leaned over and kissed her on the cheek. This shocked the older woman, yet Mr. Keck was totally unaware that he had committed a social blunder. What he considered as a respectful act, grandmother considered disrespectful. Instead, Mr. Keck should have nodded to the older woman and offered her a verbal greeting.
◆ When establishing relations with Asians, avoid body contact. The safest form is to nod and give a verbal salutation. Follow their lead as the relationship changes.
Like customs everywhere, increased cross-cultural interaction brings about changes in habits; many Asian businesspeople have accommodated to the American handshaking tradition. On the other hand, in a situation where it seems as if bowing would still be the only polite move to make—especially to the Japanese—following these guidelines should make it easier.
◆ When bowing to people from Japan, hands should slide down toward the knees or remain at the side.
◆ Back and neck should be held in a rigid position, while eyes look downward.
◆ The person in the inferior position always bows longer and lower.
Those from India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh use the namaste for both greeting and farewells and as a sign of respect. They do this by holding their hands chest-high in a prayerlike position, then slightly nod the head; but they do not bow. American students of yoga who are taught by Asian teachers become familiar with this gesture that heralds the beginning of each session. Thais have a similar greeting, but they call it a wai.
While body contact is generally taboo in most Asian countries, elsewhere, body contact is expected; shying away from contact gives off negative signals.
◆ When greeting, people from Indian, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Thailand hold their hands together in front of their chins in a prayerlike position and nod their heads.
◆ When greeting, most Latinos expect body contact. Hugging and kissing on the check are acceptable for both the same sex and the opposite sex. The abrazo is commonplace—friends embrace and simultaneously pat each other on the back.
◆ When greeting, most middle easterners, especially Muslims, avoid body contact with the opposite sex, but men may embrace and kiss one anther. Women may do the same. When shaking hands, men should avoid pulling their hands away too quickly.
◆ When greeting most Americans, expect soma body contract. Women kiss once on each cheek and hug; men shake hands. Men may also hug and kiss women on the cheek if they are close friends.
◆ When greeting orthodox Jews, avoid body contact with the opposite sex.
3.2.2 Signs of affection
Sheree Bykofsky, an American writer, is thrilled when a cruise ship line purchases copies of her hew romantic travel guide, the best place to kiss in and around New York City. The cruise line plans to give the books as dinner favors during their special valentine’s cruise.
They invite Sheree on board to greet the passengers and autograph their copies. The Americans and Europeans delight in meeting the author and having her sign their books. However, when Sheree visits the tables of the Japanese passengers, most of them refuse to acknowledge her.
Japanese people do not approve of public body contact and, thus, have developed a complex system of bowing to express relationships. Touching a member of the opposite sex is particularly repugnant to their sensitivities; consequently, kissing in public is considered a disgraceful act.
The Japanese snubbed Sheree because the title of her book suggested behavior that did not conform to their standards of respect. They would not acknowledge her because, in their eyes, she promoted vulgarity.
Asians from countries other than Japan are equally disapproving when they see American men and women or two men to walk in public holding hands. However, when they practice this sign of friendship in the states, they are frequently mistaken for homosexuals. This shocks them.
Same-sex hand holding or walking arm-in-arm also occurs among Latinos, French, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, and middle easterners.
◆ Most Japanese people strongly disapprove of public expression of affection by males and females through kissing or any other form of body contact.
◆ Same-sex hand holding between Asians, middle-easterners, Latinos, or those from Mediterranean countries is a sign of friendship. Walking with arms on each other’s shoulders or with hands or arms linked also equates with camaraderie.
3.2.3 Physical contact
When Dorothy receives a wedding invitation to attend her Japanese neighbor’s wedding, she is thrilled. She has always admired the Yamashita family. She is very fond of lance, the about-to-be-married son, and feels extremely close to Grace, his mother. Dorothy feels honored to be included in the family festivities.
After the beautiful church ceremony, Dorothy stands in line to greet the bridal party. However, when Dorothy, a very affectionate person, steps forward to embrace the mother of the groom, Grace steps backward.
Dorothy feels rejected.
Even at such a joyous occasion as a wedding, Japanese customs about physical contact in public are not relaxed, even when taking place between the same sex. Truly, more formality is demonstrated in such situations. Consider the extreme reserve displayed at the 1993 royal wedding of crown prince Naruhito to Massako Owada. The physical acts of the royal couple consisted only of sipping sacred sake and making bows—no touching, no hugging, no kissing between the couple, certainly none by the wedding guests.
In Dorothy’s situation, even though she felt very close to Grace, she would have been more socially correct had she bowed her head slightly and then offered only verbal felicitations. In situations like these, it is best to observe the manner in which other wedding guests congratulate family members and then follow their example.
3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language
A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities; for example: men don’t hug or embrace when meeting; a handshake is the most common gesture that goes with a greeting; waving a hand to say “goodbye” is the same; a frown shows displeasure, and the wrinkling of one’s nose is a sign of dislike, disgust or disapproval; nodding means “yes”, and shaking one’s head means “no”; pouting has the same meaning—displeasure, bad humor, resentment; a pat on the back of a man or boy indicates approval, praise, encouragement; gritting one’s teeth may express anger, fury, or determination.
The charts on the following pages provide examples of some of the difference:
Different Body Language, Same Meaning
Meaning Body Language in China Body Language in U.S.
“Come here” (beckoning someone to come) hand extended toward person,open palm, palm down, withall fingers crooked in a beckoning motion hand extended toward person,closed hand, palm up, with forefinger only moving backand forth (in china this samegesture would be consideredoffensive by many)
“Shame on you!” (semi-joking gesture) forefinger of one hand extended, tip touches one’s own face several times quickly; similar to scratching,but with the forefinger straight (usually with the remark “shame on you!”) forefinger of each hand extended, palms down in front of one’s body; one forefinger makes several brushing movements over the back of the other forefinger
‘I’m very full” (after a meal) one or both hands open, lightly patting one’s own stomach hand raised to throat, fingersextended, palm down (oftenwith the remark “I’m full upto here.”)
Same Body Language in Tow Cultures
but with Different Meaning
Meaning in China Body Language Meaning in U. S.
anger, irritation, frustration, remorse stamping one’s foot impatience
thank you; mutual positive feelings speaker or performerclapping at same timeaudience applauds applauding oneself;improper, immodest
Curiosity, sometimes surprise staring, gaping considered impolite;makes people embarrassed,self-conscious
disapproval, hissing “shah” calling for silence
seldom used;occasionally adults may pat head of children to show affection; patting the head of a teenager or adult would cause displeasure and can be insulting pat on head giving comfort, consolation or encouragement; also shows affection
Body Language and Meaning in One Culture;
No Equivalent in Other Culture
Body Language Meaning in U.S.
chewing one’s fingernails emotional stress, worried, doesn’t know what to do
thumbing one’s nose (one thumb on tip of own nose, fingers curled and moving together) defiance, contempt
wagging one’s finger (forefinger of one hand raised, other fingers clasped, the raised forefinger is wagged from side to side) warning not to do something; indicating that what the other person is doing is wrong
thumb down (arm crooked in front of body, closed fist, thumb extended down, one or several downward movements) rejection of a proposal, idea, person; nonverbal way of saying a strong “no”
winking (quick closing of one eye, generally with a smile and slight nod) may show several feelings; understanding, approval, encouragement, trying to get across a message, solidarity
touching or pointing to tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger “It’s me” “I’m the one” (to westerners, the gesture would seem slightly funny)
using an open hand to cover one’s mouth while speaking (generally used by older people) to show confidentiality and secrecy; sometimes no meaning
using both hands (when one would be enough) in offering something to a visitor or another person respect
(when one’s tea cup is being refilled by the host or hostess) putting one or both hands upright, palm open, beside the cup “Thank you”
upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touch boy and girl in love; a good match
The examples in the charts are by no means complete, but are enough to illustrate the diversity of body language and to show the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language.
The study of body language should be complementary to the study of language. The understanding of one should be helpful in the further understanding of the other. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of the situation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading.
A word of general advice: when one communicates in a certain language, it is generally advisable to use the nonverbal behavior that goes with that particular language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. This makes communication easier and better。
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge Xu Mingwu, Prof for his assistance in this study.
[1] Fast, Julius. 1971. Body Language . Pocket Books, N.Y.
[2] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan’en. 1997. The Practical Body Language. Hua Wen Press.
[3] Robinett, Betty W. 1978. Teaching English to speakers of other Language: Substance and Technique. McGraw-hill, N.Y.
[4] Samovar L. A. 1981. Understanding Intercultural Communication. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
[5] Shen Minxian. 1999. The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School. Shanghai Education Vol. 12.
[6] Stern H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. London: Oxford university press.
[7] 毕继万 《跨文化非语言交际》,1999,外语教学与研究出版。
[8] 邓炎昌 《语言与文化》, 1989,外语教学与研究出版社。
[9] 赵艳萍 《文化与交际》, 1999,中国人民大学出版社。
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文化不同,交际行为互有差异,商务交往也各有不同的交际规范。今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是:商务交往中的非言语交际在语境中的核心地位相关论文。具体内容如下,欢迎参考:
[摘 要]在国际商务谈判中,如何掌握好语言、非言语交际与文化之间的关系,达到一种良性的沟通,对于商务人员来说是一 门必修的学科。语言是交际的工具,是文化的载体;非言语是语言交际的补充,人们在交际中,只注重语言交际,而往 往忽略非言语交际作为信息传递的重要地位。本文从两个方面探讨了在商务交往中非言语交际的重要性及双重性。 由此得知,脱离非言语配合的孤立的语言行为往往难以达到有效的交际目的。
[关键词]非言语交际;不同文化;不同方式
商务交往中的非言语交际在语境中的核心地位
国际商务谈判是跨国界的商务沟通,这种沟通是通过语言和非言语两种形式的完美配合来完成的。“非言语”同语言一样,都是文化的一部分。在不同文化中,非言语交际的形式并不完全相同。各民族有不同的非言语交际方式,例如:不同民族的人员在谈话时,对双方保持多大距离才合适有不同的看法;谈话双方身体接触的方式因文化不同而各异;目光接触的方式也有约定俗成等等。因此,要进行有效的交际,在使用某种语言的同时就得了解说话人的手势、动作、举止等所表示的意思。
1.语言与非言语交际的关系:非言语交际在交际中的作用是不可忽视的,Samova认为:“在面对面的交际中,信息的社交内容只有35%左右是语言行为,其它都是通过非言语行为传递的。”(Smaova et al 1981.155)。美国在这方面的研究还表明,在表达感情和态度时,语言只占交际行为的7%,而声调和面部表情所传递的信息却多达93%,对于西方学者所作的这些调查和统计数字,我们的信任程度有多大并不重要,但有一点是确信无疑:“人类交际是语言交际和非言语交际的结合,或者说,非语言交际是整个交际中不可缺少的组成部分,人们常说的‘仪态、举止、谈吐’中前两项都属于非语言范畴”。
(毕继万1999.9)其实,人们交际时很大程度上都借助于非言语行为。近年来,国外对非言语行为的研究已发展到一个新的阶段,出现了副语言学(Daralingulstics)、身势学(Kinesics)、近体学(Proxcmics)等新兴学科。所谓非言语行为交际,就是通过使用不属于言语范畴的方法来传递信息、表达思想的过程。非言语行为作为信息、情感的载体,具有双重性,一方面,其具有稳定性,是一种精密代码(an elaborate and secret code);另一方面,又具有可变性,因为文字随文化背景不同而各异。
研究结果表明,在实际交际过程中,文化背景制约着非言语行为的内涵。在交际中,一个人的仪态和举止所提供的信息量往往大大超过其谈吐所提供的信息量。而且,在谈吐中也还含有大量的属于非言语行为的副语言信号,如:非语义声音、停顿、笑声和交谈中的话语转接等。然而,对非言语交际行为在交际中的作用及其与语言行为之间的关系应该有一个全面、正确的认识。一方面要看到,在交际中,脱离非语言的配合的单一的语言行为往往难以有效达到交际目的;另一方面也要认识到,非言语行为只能在一定的语境中才能表达明确的含义,而且一种非言语行为只有与语言行为和其他非语言行为配合,才能提供明确的信息。因此,脱离语言行为或其他的非言语行为孤立地理解或应用某一非语言行为的做法往往难以奏效。
如果进一步将交际分成书面、口头和非言语部分,我们不难发现,书面语最有时间润色,因而可信度也就低。所以,书面语是最容易控制和掩饰真情的一种方式;口语斟酌和修改的时间较少,自觉控制机会也相对少一些,因而可信度也就高一点,但仍有时间自我掩饰和控制;非言语行为除经过训练的人以外,一般不容易有意识控制,有时甚至完全处于无意识之中,如害羞时满脸通红,害怕时脸色苍白,手脚发抖,心跳加速。呼吸急促等都比其他动作更难控制。所以,非言语行为相对来说最为真实。
2.非言语在交际中的作用:了解了语言与非言语交际之间的关系就不难理解非言语交际在跨文化交际中的作用。然而,值得注意的是,许多人认为,在跨文化交际中,要掌握的交际工具只是外语,他们比较注意语言交际的正确性、合理性和可接受性,却容易忽略非言语行为的文化差异及其影响,结果在跨文化交际中文化误解和文化冲突频频发生。其实,在跨文化交际中,非言语交际行为和手段比语言交际行为所起的交际作用则更不可低估。
霍尔非常注意非言语交际的隐蔽性(invisible aspect),他用“无声的”(silent)来描述这一特征。霍尔认为“非言语交际与文化一样,常常捉摸不定,难以观察”。目前,在行为学上存在两个学派,一个是心理学派,主张非言语行为体现一定的感情色彩;另一个是交际学派,坚持非言语行为制约人际交往。交际行为既有表现性又有社会性(Scheflen and Schrflen.1972),而且都与文化相关联。这是因为非言语交际行为是一定社会文化产物。但是,我们也必须注意到,非言语交际贯穿于整个交际过程之中,非语言交际最能反映一个人的真实面貌。
交际行为由语言行为和非言语行为两部分组成,交际礼俗包括这两种行为的交际规范。文化不同,交际行为互有差异,商务交往也各有不同的交际规范。举手投足之间往往就反映出不同的文化特征,这种特性的差异还常常引起文化误解和交际障碍。在不同的文化中,非言语所表示的含义不一样,因此,要用外语进行有效的交际,在听别人说某种语言的同时还得了解说话人的手势、动作等所表示的意义,这就是说既要“听其言而知其行”,又要“观其行而知其言”。
1.身体的接触(Touching behavior):在商务交际中,人们应当注意体触的方式以及体触行为与人际关系的文化差异。例如,在社交场合,文化不同,体触行为就有许多区别。在英语国家,一般朋友和熟人之间交谈时,要避免身体的任何部位与对方接触,即使是仅仅触摸一下也可能引起不良的反应。中国人的特点是体触频繁,而英语国家的人体触却较为少见。如果一方无意接触到对方一下,他(她)一般也会说“sorry”或“oh, I’m sorry”之类的道歉话。因此,讲话的人一般不喜欢别人说话时靠的太近,除非对方显露出喜爱的表示,要求靠近一点。
除了轻轻触摸外,再就是当众拥抱的问题。在许多国家,两个妇女见面时拥抱亲热是很普遍的现象,夫妻之间或久别重逢的亲朋好友也常常互相拥抱。两个男人是否相互拥抱,各个国家的习俗不同
。阿拉伯、俄国、法国以及东欧和地中海沿岸的一些国家里,两个男人见面后采用热烈拥抱,亲吻双颊来表示欢迎。但在东亚和一些说英语的国家,男人见面一般只是握握手,握手(shaking hands)这一身势语在全世界许多国家都表示同一个意思,即友好(friendly)。
作为见面和告辞时“握手”已被大多数国家接受。但握手并不是一种全球性的礼节,在有些国家,握手仅限于特殊的场合,如在美国只有被第三者介绍后,被介绍双方才可握手;在日本,见面一般礼节是相互鞠躬致意;在东欧一些国家则是相互拥抱、贴面,而不是握手。在交际中,最常见的体触行为当然是握手、拥抱和亲吻。除此而外还有其它许多体触行为。而作为交际者应谨慎对待,认真了解每一体触行为的含义及其文化差异。
2.目光接触(Touching eyes):“眼睛是心灵的窗户”,眼神的千变万化,表达着人们丰富多彩的内心世界。目光接触是非言语交际的一个重要方面。英语国家的人比中国人目光交流的时间长而且更为频繁。他们认为缺乏目光交流就是缺乏诚意。中国人却为了表示礼貌、尊敬或服从而避免一直直视对方。
在交往中,英语国家的人会为中国人回看时间过短而反感,认为他们看不起自己,或者认为中国人表情羞羞答答,目光躲躲闪闪;中国人却感到英语国家的人在交流过程中总爱死盯着人,特别是年青女子对于英语国家的男子这种相视有时就极为反感。所以,在这方面有许多约定俗成的规范:看不看对方、什么时候看、看多久等等。因此,商务人员在商务交往中应充分利用这种非言语,并要注意正确使用礼节。
3.手势表达(Hand gesture):手势也是常用的非言语表达方式。打手势的动作稍有不同就可能会与原来的意图不同。
对某种手势理解错了,也会引起意外的反应,甚至是意想不到的结果。在日常交往中,人们也有两种基本手势,手掌心朝上,表示真诚或顺从;手掌心向下,表示压制。在日常交际中手势表达可谓繁复,商务人员应细心观察、多多领会。
英美人习惯伸出食指并用食指弯曲这一手势表示“请过来(Please come over)”,但在日本等一些亚洲国家这个手势万万使不得,因为他们常以此来召唤一条狗或别的动物,而在大部分中东和远东国家,用一个手指召唤人是对人的极大侮辱。
在国际商务交往中,语言并不是唯一的手段,我们的表情(Facial expressions),手势(gesture)以及身体其他部位的动作都会向对方传递信息,而且由于历史与文化习惯不一样,各国的身体语言的含义差异很大。同一种身体语言,可能有不同或完全相反的意思。
正确的非言语动作可以起到加强信息交流的作用;而错误的动作,不但起不到这种作用,而且可能是非礼的,会引起误解甚至发生冲突。因此,要想成为一个成功的商务人员,必须正确地理解文化差异,坚持不懈地排除文化优越感;必须对交往国的非言语有所了解,正确对人、正确对己。做到入乡随俗,以免由于误解而造成双方贸易上的损失。只有这样,才能成功达到交际的目的。
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论文摘要:不同民族由于历史发展不同,形成了不同的民族文化心理。汉民族文化心理丰富且复杂.对言语交际产生了很深的影响。本文主要对汉民族言语交际中讲究礼节,注重和谐,语词速信等方面独特的文化心理现象进行探索讨论。
论文关键词:现代汉语;汉民族;言语交际;文化心理
语言是人类最重要的交际工具,同时语言又是民族文化最重要的载体,是民族文化重要的表现形式。一个民族的文化最能通过民族的语言表现出来。静态的语言,语言负载的文化因素是固定在语音、词汇、语法这些语言要素中的;动态的语言,就产生了言语和言语行为,在言语使用中,民族文化心理就伴随着言语行为表现出来。“语言是思想的直接现实”,言语使用者怎么说,如何说,认为这样表达是合适的,样表达是不合适的,与言语使用者的心理密切相关。民族文化心理就是一个民族在漫长的历史长河中形成的相同或相似的思维习惯、行为准则。不同的民族由于历史发展的不同,就形成了不同的民族文化心理。动态的语言最能反映出言语使用者在言语活动中的思维形式、行为准则,有什么样的思维形式、行为准则,在言语表达时就有什么样的表达模式。不同的民族在不同的文化背景下形成的不同的民族文化心理,对言语行为产生了很深的影响。如受到夸奖时,西方人往往采取迎合的方式,表示高兴,通常是道一声“谢谢”;而汉族人的反应则往往是以否认或自贬的方式,通常要说“不行,不行~差远了”等。这种言语交际中表现出来的表达差异,反映出不同民族不同的民族文化心理。可以说,言语交际中,人们的言语行为无不浸染着浓厚的民族文化色彩,蕴含着独特的民族文化心理。对言语交际中的民族文化心理的揭示,有利于我们学习并正确掌握和运用民族语言,有利于口语交际中言语表达得恰当、得体、适度符合民族审美心理,以取得最佳的表达效果。汉民族有着五千多年的悠久历史,在这漫长的历史长河中,积淀着博大精深的民族文化,民族文化像血液一样漫澜在汉民族的文化肌体当中,并在言语行为中处处留下“痕迹”。本文试从言语交际中透视汉民族独特的文化心理。
一、讲究谈吐文雅.彬彬有礼的心理
中国是具有五千年历史的文明古国,隶有“礼仪之邦的美称。中国人为人处世讲究“知礼数,“懂礼貌”,交战双方也要“先礼后兵”,深谙“礼多人不怪”的道理。儒家视“礼为立国之本.其中就包括待人接物的礼仪内容。受儒家思想的长期熏陶,汉民族在言语交际中,深知。礼之用,和为贵,文质彬彬,然后君子。言语交际中的礼貌表达在汉民族为人处世中占有重要地位,讲究谈吐文雅、彬彬有礼是道德高尚有修养的表现。汉民族言语交际中讲究礼节的心理,使得汉语积累了丰富多彩的礼俗词语,并且怎么表达颇有讲究,乱不得,错不得,滥不得,否则就要失礼。这种注重言语礼节,讲究言语礼貌的心理在言语交际中处处体现。如对人的称呼,是汉民族礼貌表达的重要标志,小孩见到大人,学生见到老师,下级见到上级等熟人相见,首先要有个称呼表示礼貌,有些场合恰当适度的称呼,对交际效果起到关键作用。汉民族在交际时为表示对对方的尊敬,常用敬称和谦称,这样,经过长期积累,在汉语中就形成了内容丰富的有明显区别的敬称和谦称。敬称和谦称早在秦代就广泛使用,如敬称有“足下、殿下、执事”等,谦称有“寡、孤、不毂、不才、在下等。现在我们还常用敬称“令尊、令堂、贵姓、贵公司、贵校”,谦称“敝人、愚弟、寒舍、拙作”等。汉民族注重长幼有序和血缘宗亲关系,见到长辈一定要有称呼,以示尊敬,而不像西方为表示亲切,对父母或其他长辈都可直呼其名,在汉民族看来,这样是少教无礼,没有修养。对无亲属关系的人使用亲属称呼.就显得与说话人特别亲近,无形中拉近了双方的距离,如平常称呼“老伯、叔叔、大哥、大姐”等。上街购物,个体老板为体现服务态度之热隋诚恳,常“大妈、大姐、老哥、老弟”地叫,以表现对顾客有礼貌和亲近,符合汉民族文化心理,顾客心里愉快,购物热情也会大增。表示礼貌的敬称谦称还有许多,不再一一列举。
还有言语交际中的祝福语,就是吉祥话,也是汉民族讲究言语有札的重要内容。和睦吉祥、福寿安康是人们千百年来追求的美好理想,汉民族有在喜庆的日子里道个喜、送个祝福以示礼貌的传统习惯。什么样的场合说什么样的祝福话有特定的内容和讲究,如给老人祝寿,常用“福如东海,寿比南山“福寿齐天…福寿无疆”等。汉民族有注重传宗接代,长久计议的心理,常用“多子多福,子孙满堂来祝福,结婚时,就用“白头偕老~百年好合”“鸾风和鸣”的祝福话,开张时用“财源广进…生意兴隆”“恭喜发财”等吉祥话,不论祝福语能否实现,图个吉利吉祥,以示礼貌。
汉民族言语交际中讲究礼节、注重礼节,力求谈吐文雅、彬彬有礼的心理,在言语交际中随处可见,尤其在问候语、道谢语、恭维语等中都有充分体现。
二、贵和谐,重人情.爱面子心理
汉民族在人际交往中的民族心理是“和睦相处,“以和为贵,把和谐作为人际交往的目的。汉民族在人际交往中极重人情,爱面子,表现在言语表达上受儒家“中庸之道”思想的影响,力求措辞有度,不偏不倚,适度得体,在言语表达上表现为含蓄、婉转、模糊,形成汉民族言语表达上独有的文化模式。
汉民族在人际交往中提倡“以仁爱之心示人”,“以宽恕之心对人”,就是对别人要有仁爱之心,要关.爱护别人,对别人的错误过失要原谅、理解,少计较或不计较。俗语道“树有皮,人有脸”,“打人不打脸,骂人不揭短”,要得饶人处且饶人”,要给人面子,留“台阶”,少得罪人。如我们常见的批评,汉民族的心理是既要达到目的,又要让对方接受,并给他留面子,在表达上就常用含蓄婉转的方式,先表扬或肯定成绩,然后再转折“但是……或“……不妥,不足”“然后”“希望……”。老师批评学生:你关心集体,热爱劳动,同学们应该向你学习,但在学习方面下的工夫还不够,希望你今后上课注意听讲,不要说话,把学习搞上去就更好了。目的是批评学生,但在表达时讲究“艺术”,就更易使对方接受。在交往中,有些时候需要拒绝别人,如果直接拒绝,会使人难堪,在汉民族看来容易产生“不和”,不够礼貌,违犯了汉民族待人处世的原则,为了不得罪人,给人留面子,常用含蓄模糊的语言“间接”地拒绝对方,更多的是让对方自己体会话外之音。用得较多的就是“考虑考虑”,“研究研究”,“等等再说吧”,婉言谢绝,如:“马主任,我的调动问题……~这件事我知道,我们再研究研究吧。
汉民族较之于西方人性格内向、沉稳、含蓄,不像西方人性格外露、直率。在西方注重突出个人及个人价值,而汉民族传统观念是重社会,重集体,突出一个“和谐,不突出个人,涉及个人则习惯于含蓄或婉转表达。一篇文章明明是个人见解,但习惯上要谦称“我们认为”。个人取得的成绩,常要说领导的支持,集体的智慧。汉民族不突出自我的心理。含蓄婉转的表达模式,形成了交际中内容丰富的客套话、寒喧语。干某件事明明准备得很充分,但要讲准备不足,请大家多多指教;宴请客人,饭莱准备得很丰盛,客人酒足饭饱,主人还要说“粗茶淡饭,不成敬意”,或者准备不好,没有什么可口的,管饱不管好”等,这些话对同一文化背景下的汉族人听来,不足为怪,因为有共同的民族文化心理,但让西方人听来,就莫名其妙,不可理解。前几年,有一则报道,说是记者采访一个中国著名的演员,问道:“你认为当今中国最优秀的演员是谁?”演员回答:“是我。”这个回答使许多人意外之余觉得演员太张狂了,引来了颇多微词。从心理上讲,汉民族传统观念认为,就是最好的是自己也要谦虚一下,含蓄一点表达。由此可见,演员的回答引来非议,是有着民族文化心理基础的。
汉民族言语交往中的重和、贵和、重人隋、重名声、爱面子的思想根深蒂固,含蓄、婉转、模糊的表达方式体现在言语交往的方方面面。人常说的“和气生财”,“家和万事兴”,“天时不如地利,地利不如人和”都体现了和睦相处、相安无事的人际交往的理想,这些汉民族独特的民族文化心理对言语行为产生了很深的影响。
三、喜联想、善比附的语词迷信心理
语言本是人类社会的交际工具,但人们在使用过程中,总是把语言的功能夸大并神秘化,对语言有着一种崇拜和信仰的心理,即语言拜物教(wordfetishism)。把语言和它指向的事物和现象合为一体,认为语言有着超自然的精神力量,能降福也能招灾,由此,人们耽于语言幻想,希望通过语言来沟通人与自然的关系,借助语言来趋吉避凶。自古以来,每个民族都有对语言的崇拜心理,汉民族在言语交际中耽于语言幻想,语词迷信的心理突出且执著,表现在语言表达上就是特别喜联想,善比附,讲究有说头,讨个好口彩。如最常见的给人或事物命名,像人名、地名、商品名、庭院名等,都要煞费苦心,起出意义来,起出好来。在言语使用中,汉族人更喜欢说话讨个好彩头,也就是说吉利话,听吉利话,把自己的愿望、追求寄托在语词上,对语词的迷信特别认真。《羊城晚报》曾报道,一彩民对体育彩票中彩500万一直心神向往,为博好彩,就将自家豢养的小狗取名“五百万”,经常对小狗作势呼唤“五百万,来”,小狗闻听主人声音,立刻俯首帖耳趋向前去,主人心花怒放,仿佛500万元在“来”的叫喊声中真的到来。汉人还喜欢借助同音或谐音讨口彩,汉语中的“8与“发”谐音,…9与“久”同音,带有…8’…9’数字的日期、号码、名称就被认为是吉祥号,能带来好运气,带有…8的日子街上开业的商店最多,带有“888”、“159”、“168”、“198”的车号、牌号等许多人不惜重金买下。还有发糕、发菜、发财树等为人喜爱,都是为图一个吉利。结婚时常见的在床上撒下红枣、花生、桂圆、莲子,为的就是取谐音“早生贵子”。汉民族言语中表现出来的这种为追求美好生活而联想比附的心理在生活中处处可见。
由于人们对语词的迷信心理,在言语交际中,认为是吉利话,能带来好运的话,人们爱说多说,而有些话的指向是不好的事物或人们厌恶的现象,则认为是不吉利的话,就不说或少说。有的场合甚至特别忌讳某些话,鲁迅在《野草·立论》中讲了这样一个故事,一个富贵人家生了孩子,作满月时,请了几位客人,大家都看了看弦子,一个客人说:“这个孩子将来要当官的。”得到大家的一致称赞。另一个客人又说:“这弦子将来要发财的。”又得到了大家的一番喝彩。最后一个客人说:“这弦子将来要死的。”结果得到一顿痛打。在喜庆的日子,人们最忌讳不吉利的字眼。前两个客人说的话不管是真心话,还是虚伪话,都是吉利话,主人爱听,当然更希望吉言能成为现实;而最后一个客人说的确实是大实话,但不分场合,不合人们心理,是人们最忌讳的话,挨打是必然的。生活中人们的语词迷信还有很多,如从“分梨”联想到“分离”,从“进钟”联想到“送终”,从“伞”联想到“散”。不同的地区由于方言不同,还有许多地方性的语词迷信。
语言是一种交际工具,一种符号系统,人们的语词迷信程度与整个社会环境和个人文化素养有着密切的关系。我们应该本着科学的态度,积极引导,摒弃那些妨碍社会文明的语词迷信。
汉民族言语交际中反映的文化心理丰富多彩,本文对汉民族言语交际中的讲究礼节,注重和谐,耽于语言幻想等心理的揭示,只是汉民族言语交际中文化心理的-d’部分。汉民族言语交际中还有许多独特的方式和内容,如问候、交谈、拜访、辞行、避忌等,其中蕴含的民族文化心理,有待于我们进一步探索研究。
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外交辞令指的是在外交活动中谈论较尖锐或较敏感的问题时所使用的经过慎重考虑的措词。一般来讲,外交辞令是一种正式、保守、准确的说服性语言,但出于说话者的立场和语言表达的策略需要,说话人常常故意使用一些含糊其辞的言语,保证发言稳妥、严谨、灵活、礼貌和高效,以达到最佳交际效果。只有这样,才能使外交活动顺利进行。中国外交上的一个“里程碑”式的人物周恩来,在外交场合中恰当地运用语用模糊,使其话语得体、适当,具有超凡的言语魅力。本文从顺应论的视角对周恩来的外交话语中的语用模糊进行分析。
物理世界主要包括时间和空间的指示关系。就时间而言,它包括事件时间、说话时间和指称时间。空间指示即地点指示关系,它包括绝对空间关系和参照指称对象的相对空间关系[5]。采用模糊语言这种策略顺应物理世界就是避免第三者的干涉和参与。
1960年4月下旬,周恩来与印度谈判中印边界问题,印方提出一个挑衅性问题:“西藏自古就是中国的领土吗?”周恩来说:“西藏自古就是中国的领土,远的不说,至少在元代,它已经是中国的领土。”对方说:“时间太短了。”周恩来说:“中国的元代离现在已有700来年的历史,如果700来年都被认为是时间短的话,那么,美国到现在只有100多年的历史,是不是美国不能成为一个国家呢?这显然是荒谬的。”
在周恩来的反驳中,在语言策略上对物理世界做出选择顺应,用了两个时间的对比来否定对方的观点。700年与100年相比较,要否认700年而承认100年显然是站不住脚的,其结果是承认100年就得承认700年这个事实。坚定立场都包容在寥寥数语的含蓄表达之中,充分显示了模糊语言妙不可言的表现力。
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汉语字母词的出现丰富了现代汉语语言词汇系统,便于中西跨文化交际,但另一方面字母词的出现也是语言文化帝国主义在现代汉语中的表现,它破坏了现代汉语文字系统的纯洁性。本文探讨现代汉语字母词现象,并指出现代汉语字母词现象出现的必然性。
在跨文化交际的过渡阶段,跨文化与跨语言交际已经发展到一定的程度,为了克服在跨文化交际起步阶段用汉字单纯音译外来语词的缺陷,人们用汉字音意兼译外来语词。如把Beatles译成“披头士”会让人联想起乐手们演奏乐曲时长发飘散的潇洒形象;把coca-cola译成“可口可乐”会让人向往这种饮料的美昧,可口可乐之所以行销中国,其原因也在于此;把TOEFL译成“托福”,把意欲留学美国的中国学子的祈福心态描绘得活灵活现。其它经典的音意兼译佳作还有shampoo(香波),Benz(奔驰),Canon(佳能),talking show(脱口秀),Sumicidin(速灭杀丁),Broadway(百老汇)等等。
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文学语言,从根本上来说就是以文字形式记录下来的作家的言语,它用来实施某种言语行为。那么文学作品,其实也就是作家一个或若干个具体言语行为组成的一个综合体。文学言语行为除了通过言内行为,传达语言表层结构的命题意义,还通过言外行为表达作品言语的深层信息,即作家言语行为的意图和创作的主题,从而可能产生相应的言后行为,即{导到读者的认同或共鸣。如果能以言语行为理论为指导,运用现代语言学和文学评论相结合的方法,就能更好地理解作品的精髓。
作为文学写作常用手法之一的反讽就是一种间接言语行为。它是“作者用来说明小说本意上的表里虚实之悬殊的一整套结构和修辞手法。”它通过故意违反诚意原则而达到“言在此而意在彼”的效果,说话人真实的言外之意是句子命题内容的反说或否定。19世纪美国著名的短篇小说家EdgarAJlanPoe的短篇小说《一桶白葡萄酒》,就是借助于将反讽的艺术手法成功地运用在人物对话中,情节的处理上,乃至整部作品的构思之中,从而大大渲染了令人窒息的恐怖氛围与复仇主题。本文将根据言语行为理论,对《一桶白葡萄酒》中的反讽言语行为进行宏观和微观两方面的分析。
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