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从古至今,中方与西方都存在着无尽的差异,中西文化差异及其对语言学习也有一定的影响。下面是读文网小编带来的关于中西文化差异及其对语言学习的影响论文的内容,欢迎阅读参考!
《中西文化差异对英语学习的影响》
摘 要: 运用文献资料、逻辑分析等方法,主要探讨中西文化差异对英语学习的影响。研究表明:中西文化差异对英语学习的影响突出表现在词汇理解、阅读理解和表达方式等方面,主要受地理环境、思维方式和肢体语言等因素的影响。克服中西文化差异对英语学习的不良影响的主要途径和策略如下:第一,熟悉中西文化差异;第二,培养英语交际能力;第三,转变传统思维方式。
关键词:文化差异;英语学习;中国文化;西方文化
随着经济全球化的深入发展,世界各地文化交流也越来越频繁。而语言在文化交流中扮演着重要角色。在此基础之上,本文主要探讨中西文化差异对英语学习的影响,以期为中国学生更好地学习英语提供参考和借鉴。
1 中西文化差异对英语学习影响的表现
词汇理解上,笔者通过查阅大量文献,总结出:在宗教信仰、神话传说、风俗习惯方面,许多西方国家都有着其本土文化的特色。例如:西方国家将dog视为人类忠实的朋友,用“Love me,love my dog”、“Every dog has his day”等来表达对狗的喜爱。对比看来,中国却用“累成狗”、“看门狗”等来表示贬义。还有Cheesecake汉译为“奶酪蛋糕”,在西方却指女性健美照;beefcake汉译为“牛肉蛋糕”,在西方却指男性健美照;Black tea汉译为黑茶,在西方却指红茶,等等这些,在汉语翻译中都给英语学习者们带来了不少困扰。汉语中雨后春笋在英译中却是“spring up like mushrooms”,多如牛毛在英译中却是“as plentiful as blackberries”。商业中“in the red”,不是盈利,相反却表示亏损、负债。类似的情况比比皆是,看似没有任何关系甚至词意相反的翻译,却因中西文化的差异造成不同层次的影响。
阅读理解上,笔者指出:学习词汇是为了习得词组,学习词组是为了连成句子,学习句子是为了练就段落,学习段落是为了组合成一篇完美的文章。文章几乎涉及到了所有英语类知识,英语基础正是体现在每一篇文章的理解之上。实践表明,在英语文章阅读上,掌握词汇量是难点,而中西文化意识更是重难点。文章从头读到尾,却不能理解作者想表达的核心观念,找不到文章的中心主题,导致对文章不理解,心情烦躁,题目难做,甚至放弃习题。这一点许多英语学习者深有体会。譬如:在第三版《综合英语教程》中第五单元标题“Is my team ploughing”,见此,大家第一感觉就会翻译成“我的团队努力(耕作)吗”或者其他,但是编者想表达意思的却是“我的马队是否在犁耕”,联系了A.E.Housman的诗歌题目,重点讲述的是“生死”,旨在表达作者告诫世人“Live in the present and cherish what we have”。翻译上的差异,导致我们对本单元的主题产生误导,甚至不理解文章大意。由此可见,对西方文化知识的缺乏会极大影响我们对文章的理解能力。
表达方式上,中国人往往会以“你吃饭了吗”、“你要去哪里”等作为开头语,而译为英语则是“Have you eaten yet”、“Where are you going”,在西方人看来却是被邀请去吃饭、约在某地玩,碰撞在一起便会尴尬。而西方人大多用“Good morning/afternoon/evening”、“Find day,isn’t it”来作为自己的开场白。送客时汉语中常会用到“一路平安”或“慢走”,翻译成英文却不是字面的“Go slowly”,而是“Take care”或“Watch your step”,旨在出门要小心。在接受礼物方面,中国人较为含蓄,收到礼物后不拆开,为不让他人认为贪心等性质,而西方人却大都会当面拆开礼物,以示自己对礼物的喜爱,更是对送礼人的一种尊重。
2 中西文化差异对英语学习影响的原因
从地理环境的角度看,中国文化主要是指以黄河中、下游流域及长江流域为轴心发展起来的华夏文明,或曰中国文化;西方文化则主要是指以爱琴海、地中海为中心兴起的古希腊文明、古罗马文明、古埃及文明。黄河、长江流域为大陆提供了农业方便,因此,中国文化更大程度上属于农业文化。北海、大西洋等海洋围绕着西方国家,为其摇篮,为其捎去航海方面的商业福利,因此,西方文化更大程度上属于海洋文化。中国兴种水稻瓜果蔬菜,“稻花香里说丰年,听取蛙声一片”、“忽如一夜春风来,千树万树梨花开”等绘出了有声有色的农业文化。西方国家在海洋中成长,“all at sea”、“To keep one’s head above water”等都会用“water”来表现资源丰富的海洋文化。中国地处东、北半球,在中国人心目中的东风是温暖的春风,而西北风才是寒冷的。英国地处西半球,北温带,海洋性气候,感知到春天的消息的却是西风。在不少英文著作翻译中,翻译者尤其要注意的是二者文化的差异造成读者理解上的干扰,而文明的起源首先也是要依赖于地理环境。
从思维方式的角度看,中西家庭教育的目的上亦有所差别:美国家庭教育目的期望值不太高,旨在培养孩子的独立能力,让孩子自己去习得新的知识及能力,父母并不为子女的将来而担忧,只是将其个性中积极成分挖掘出来,指引孩子前进的道路,让孩子独自去旅行。譬如:Bill Gates――微软公司主席和首席软件设计师,他小学时发现了自己在软件方面的兴趣,并于13岁开始了计算机编程,不畏惧未来,勇敢尝试的他,最终取得成功。相比较之下,中国家庭教育目的期望值高,“望子成龙,望女成凤”正是这样一种体现,父母为孩子铺好未来的道路,让孩子专心致志投入学习,却极大忽视他们潜在的天赋及创造力。因此,孩子们培养成了死记硬背的习惯,却忽视单词之间的相互贯通、联用,极大影响到孩子们的兴趣以及英语学习的积极性,导致其成绩下降,畏惧英语。笔者指出,大多数英语学习者在翻译时直译了文章,或者轻描淡写译出文章大意,并没有深入去感悟文章的中心思想,没有深入作者的内心世界,只是以偏概全去翻译文章,效果自然不佳。
从肢体语言的角度看,不同领域也有不尽相同的含义。众所周知,点头表示同意,摇头表示否定,高兴时张嘴呲牙,生气时瞪大眼睛似有火焰,痛苦忧伤时会眉头紧锁、面无表情,因为人类天生的面部表情并不受文化的制约。另一方面,中国对OK手势的理解是数字“0”或“3”,在西方国家却用来征求对方意见或回答对方征求意见的回话;中国对V手势的理解是数字“2”,在西方国家大多表示胜利“Victory”;在中国,竖起大拇指表示夸奖、敬佩对方,在西方国家更多用来表示搭乘车。见面时,西方人较讲究“见面礼仪”,女性间的“亲吻礼”,特别在于久别重逢的母女,而在中国,却是少之又少的情景,较多的是二者间的握手、拥抱。由此表明,中西风俗习惯的差异极大程度上抑制了二者间的交流理解。随着中国日益走向国际化市场,与西方交流合作也日益增多,汉文化中的肢体语言在一定程度上受到了西方文化习俗的影响,做到了中西文化完美的契合。但中国传统文化仍然是根深蒂固的,具有相对的稳定性,“自卑而尊大,贬己而尊人”则被视为汉文化的传统美德。而西方人却旨在追求个人主义,为实现平等自由、个人隐私以及自我发展的传统原则思想。
3 克服中西文化差异对英语学习影响的途径和策略
首先熟悉中西文化差异。中西方文化都有着悠久的历史,他们在发展过程中形成了独具特色的风俗文化,英语学习者要学好英语,不仅仅要深度理解词根、语法、句意,了解西方文化历史背景以及风俗习惯更是提高英语水平的一个大的工程。了解西方文化背景知识,可以理解西方的价值观念、风俗习惯,感受异国风情以拓宽学生的知识面。多查阅西方国家历史文化的相关书籍、资料,多观看西方电影,更有甚者,学习英文歌曲,都能在其中习得新的知识,感悟语言的魅力,拉近中英的距离,提高英语学习效率及水平。
其次培养英语交际能力。增强对英语国家的了解、锻炼学生口语,有助于提高英语交际运用能力。学习英语是为加强国与国之间的交流,疏通国与国之间的脉络,做到和平共处。口语在国际、生活上都占相当高的地位,学习者学习英语的同时,难点亦是口语的表达。中国学生含蓄,以文字代替语言,西方国家学生开放,以语言与他人交流。由此可见,口语的培养是必不可少了,学生自觉主动锻炼口语语感,老师督促同学口语练习,为学生培养出一定的环境,用配音来展示学生的风采。
最后转变传统思维方式。在英语的学习中,将中西结合考虑周到就要求一改以往死记硬背,倡导单词联想法,将每一个单词都灵活运用到文章甚至生活中。根据自己的英语学习能力,为自己量身制定一套属于自己的学习方法。当中国的传统式碰上西方国家的开放式,要学会判断哪种方法更利于英语学习,选择其一又或者二者相结合,创造出双赢甚至多赢。与此同时,深入了解双方文化的特点,民族心理、宗教信仰和风俗习惯,对肢体语言在中西文化中要规范礼仪文明,入乡随俗的信仰也会更多的避免交际失误。
4 结语
英语学习的最终目的是培养语言应用能力,体现在英语交际能力以及国际交流能力。随着中国在国际上的地位越来越高,与其他国家的合作越来越多,这就要求中国不断建立起彼此间良好的合作关系。越来越多的人逐渐意识到文化在国际交流间的重要性了,而交际能力也离不开对其他国家文化的了解。我们不仅要掌握语言的表面形式,还要熟悉语言深层次的精神文化内涵及其重要意义。学习中西方文化差异是培养交际能力的基础,对英汉两种语言差异性原因进行比较研究,不断探索语言的文化内涵,不断实践国际交流合作,就能提高对中西文化差异的敏感度。中国要发展、要富强,就要做好国际间的交流,与世界各国和平共处,创造共同的精神文明世界!
参考文献
[1]王爱支.中西文化差异对英语阅读的影响[J].太原大学教育学院学报,2008,26(1):77-80.
中西文化价值观差异及对各自语言的影响》
摘要: 集体主义与个人主义是中西两种文化不同价值观的核心。语言是一种社会文化现象,是社会文化的产物,社会文化又制约着语言使用者的思维方式和表达能力。本文拟探索中西两种不同文化价值观的渊源及其对各自语言的影响。
关键词:中西文化 价值观差异 语言 影响
语言与文化的关系极为密切。语言是一种社会文化现象,是社会文化的产物。任何语言的生存发展都离不开其赖以生长的社会文化环境。社会文化又在一定程度上制约着语言使用者的思维方式和表达能力。语言是文化的载体,而信息丰富的文化又是蕴涵于语言之中的。中西方文化价值观的核心内容就是集体主义与个人主义。
一、中西文化的核心价值观――集体主义与个人主义
在中国,“个人主义”作为异域文化的核心价值观,我们往往能够意识到那些在西方文化语境中被想当然的东西,但是它与我们离得太远,我们由于缺少相应的历史和现实境遇而无法获得对个人主义的真切理解。对于个人主义,中国的学术界有多种理解:“个人主义是奴隶主阶级、地主阶级和资产阶级共同的思想基础和道德原则”;“是资产阶级的意识形态,是以个人为本位和目的的,是资本主义政治、经济、思想制度的最重要的理论基础之一”;“是一种强调个人自由、个人利益,强调自我支配的政治、伦理学说和社会哲学。实质上是一种从个人至上出发,以个人为中心来看待世界,看待社会和人际关系的世界观。个人主义的膨胀,必然会损害他人利益和社会整体利益,破坏社会人际关系的和谐,因而为共产主义道德所不容”。由此看来,“个人主义”这个词语在中国有着多种贬义理解,这与西方文化价值观是不相符合的。
在西方,个人主义(individualism)是其文化的核心价值观。个人主义首先表现为强调个人自由最大化。这种个人自由表现为他们的个人意志不受任何政府、统治阶级、教会和其他官方的干涉。个人主义价值体系可以概括为三个方面:一、一切价值都是以人为中心的,即价值都是人所经验到的(但不必为人类所创造);二、个人就是目的本身,个人是最高的价值,社会存在仅仅是实现个人目的的手段;三、所有个人都是道义上平等的,这种平等的最佳表述是,任何个人都不可被当作他人谋求利益的手段。
中国文化的核心价值观是集体主义,它的基本内涵包括:广大人民群众的根本利益是一切言论和行动的出发点和归宿;以集体利益为基础,把国家利益和个人利益结合起来;当上述三者利益发生冲突时,强调集体利益高于个人利益,在保证集体利益的前提下保障个人利益。
二、中西各自文化价值观的渊源
个人主义作为一种完备的理论形态是伴随着西方社会政治、经济、文化的发展,直到19世纪才正式确立的一套现代思想体系,而自私自利、自我中心的意识则从人类诞生之日起便根植在人们心中了。现代个人主义理论可以追溯到西方文明的源头:古希腊――罗马文明和希伯莱――____文明。16世纪开始的文艺复兴以一种狂欢的形式唤醒了沉睡在人们心中的自我意识,从而使个人正式登上了历史的舞台,宗教改革运动以一种更强大、更深刻、更进入自身内质的方式在个体灵魂的深处真正确立了个人的尊严和价值。
集体观念在中国源远流长,历史上有关国家、民族意义上的大集体观念和家族、宗族、家庭意义上的小集体观念历时久远。受两千多年封建宗法“集体观念”的浸染,中国没有产生类似西方近代资产阶级价值观意义的个人主义,因此,与历史上各种形式和内涵的集体观念不同,社会主义集体价值原则是我国社会主义特有的新型道德原则。
三、中西文化差异对各自语言的影响
语言和文化是密不可分的,语言是一种社会文化现象,是社会文化的产物。任何语言的生存发展都离不开其赖以生长的社会文化环境。社会文化又在一定程度上制约着语言使用者的思维方式和表达能力。语言是文化的载体,而信息丰富的文化又是蕴涵于语言之中的。
英语中许多词汇在汉语里是没有对应词的,西方家庭中,父母与孩子是平等的,他们之间可以直呼姓名,这也是西方文化尊重自我的体现;在中国的封建文化中,家庭中有着严格的辈分制度家庭成员之间的关系非常复杂,强烈的封建等级思想在婚姻和继承遗产上都有体现。“grandson”这一词语在汉语中可以包括六代人:孙、曾孙、玄孙、来孙、仍孙、云孙。众所周知,英美人对人的称呼,名在前、姓在后,人的姓名是以名、姓为序排列组成的。西方人第一名又称教名,是受法律承认的正式名字,例如Benjamin Franklin。中国人是把祖宗的姓放前面,名随其后,例如毛泽东、周恩来。在填写简历时,特别是填写教育背景时,中国人是按照时间先后写,由最低层次到最高层次的;而西方人是按最近的教育培训往前写,由最高层次到最低层次的。在英语的信函写地址是从小到大,即门牌号、街区、镇、市、省、国名,而汉语信函中的地址是从大写到小,即国名、省、市、镇、街区、门牌号,例如,中华人民共和国山东省烟台市莱山区滨海中路191号。
近年来许多美国大学都推行美语“三不”:“不用难字”、“不用长句”、“不写不讲含偏见的词和句”。即尽量使用简短易懂的白话英语,使人一目了然,充分理解。这样做不仅可以节省思索时间,还可以避免对方的误解。中文的许多俗语都大量运用比喻,深含哲理,例如,“少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲”、“解铃还需系铃人”等。
语言是社会文化的产物,社会文化又在一定程度上制约着语言使用者的思维方式和表达能力。强调集体利益高于个人利益,在保证集体利益的前提下保障个人利益的社会主义集体主义的新型道德原则与强调个人自由最大化的个人主义是中西方两种不同文化价值观的核心,它们的产生与存在都有着深厚的历史渊源,并对各自的语言系统有着深远影响。
参考文献:
[1]刘芬,于志涛.特定文化体系中集体主义与个人主义研究[J].重庆教育学院学报,2004,(9).
[2]卢风.简评西方个人主义价值观[J].湖南师范大学社会科学学报,1994,(6).
[3]张安德,张翔.论外语教学的文化意识培养与文化导入[J].外语与外语教学,2002,(6).
[4]张灵灵.旅游英语翻译浅谈[J].贵州商业高等专科学校学报,2005,(3).
《浅谈中西文化差异对语言翻译的影响》
摘 要 语言翻译不仅是对原文的重新排列编码,有时要从文化的角度对原文进行诠释,翻译在一定程度上受到文化差异的影响。本文试图从思维方式、价值取向、宗教信仰和风俗习惯四个方面进行分类分析,结合实例探讨翻译过程中应注意的问题。
关键词 文化差异 语言 翻译
1 思维方式的影响
1.1 顺向与逆向
不同文化背景的人在观察同一现象时,其角度和顺序存在不同甚至完全相反,作为翻译的人员需格外注意。最常见的如信笺地址的书写,中文习惯从国家省份到市区街道,由大到小,而英文正好相反。再如表示方位,中文通常以“东西南北”为顺序,而西方人习惯按祷告时划十字的先后顺序来表达,即clear divisions of the earth’s surface are usually called North, South, East, West. 因此中文的“东北”应译为northeast才符合习惯。同样,关于打折,汉语着眼于打折后的实际付款比率,如“九折”,而英语着眼于打掉的折扣,用ten percent discount表示;汉语说“自学”,强调学,而英语说“self-taught”, 强调教;汉语说“寒衣”,而英语却说“warm clothes”。
1.2 求同与求异
中国的传统文化强调“大一统”的思想,西汉的“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”,“春秋大一统者,天地之长径,古今之通义也”奠定了其根本的思想基础,儒家的礼教,科举的八股,经过多年来统治阶级的倡导和时间的沉淀,形成统一的价值标准和行为规范。这体现到思维方式上,力求“异中求同”、“整齐”、“一刀切”、“随大流”等等。而西方文化在民主、人权、独立的氛围中,多强调个体、创新、忌同和立异,认为批判不是为了废除知识,而是开拓创新,增长知识。纵观西方文明史,不同时期各流派、不同学术团体和思想体系并存。个体主义的影响使之形成不易苟同和挑战权威,更喜各抒己见的个性。亚里士多德曾说过“吾爱吾师,吾更爱真理”。正因如此,当外宾看到学校学生一律坐的整整齐齐,手统一放背后,教室鸦雀无声时,甚是不解。再如,“随便”两字在点菜时频频出现,或是说“客随主便”,对应的英语up to you。中国文化强调不要让主人太为难,万一我提的要求他做不到怎么办,考虑甚多。而西方文化则认为这没有个性。例如,在告别晚宴上的讲话一律是“风景很美丽,人们很友好,接待很热情”。深知文化差异的翻译灵机一动,将讲话翻译为“牛排能否煮烂一点;多数人不懂外文,能否将材料译成中文;马桶不习惯,最好是蹲坑”。结果这些建议被如获至宝,过好久还表示感谢。
2 价值取向的影响
首先,对时间的看法不同。中国人崇尚悠久的历史,在时间上采取过去取向。如“老”在中文中往往意味着资历、经验和权威。当表示尊敬时也习惯用“老”字,如王老,您老,老先生,老革命,姜是老的辣等。但对应的英语old 一词在英语中含有失去竞争力和可能被淘汰的危险。所以,在翻译中应注意避免使用。如表示上了年纪,可以说in one’s golden age, in one’s advanced age, the mature, the longer living, a seasoned man, senior citizens. 公汽上老人专座应译为courtesy seats.
其次,谦逊的程度。中国人习惯谦逊内敛,甚至自贬。如招待时常说“家常便饭,没什么菜”等等。西方人费解,也许心里会问,十个凉菜,十个热菜,为什么还说没有菜。既然菜不好,为什么不把好菜端出来呢?换做他们,就会说“这是我们这里最好的菜”,如果是在家里做客,就说“这是我夫人最拿手的菜”。同时,中文称呼别人家为令尊、高堂,说自己家是鄙人、贱内、犬子,对于英语是一样的,就是your father, your mother, I , my wife, my son 等等。
再次,人与人之间的距离差异。中国人习惯将家庭视为内团体,其他人是外团体。在内团体中,自我与他人的距离很近。所以,表示感谢一类的话多用于外团体中。即使是非家庭成员,有时也会认为是“自己人”,做点事是应该的,说谢的话就太“见外”了。相比之下,西方人的心理距离要大一些,他们区分的是自己和其他人,包括家人在内。他们认为除自己以外的任何人都要说thank you。就是夫妇两人一起出去吃饭,也习惯各自付账。这种潜移默化的人与人之间的距离也反映在称谓上。中文中的亲属称谓数目远多于英语,也更细化,还常用来称呼非血缘关系的人。如孩子称呼长辈为叔叔、爷爷等。这在中国人看来是一种很好的沟通,可以拉近双方距离,而西方人不会随便用这些称呼,会引起误会。同样,西方人忌讳谈论年龄、婚姻、收入、小孩等,认为那是个人隐私,他人无权干涉,而中国人习惯谈论上述话题,反而认为是关心和亲密。
另外,如何对待个人安全感的基础也不尽相同。中国人往往习惯从社会关系中寻求安全感,首先在亲属和自己的社会圈子中寻找,再向外逐步扩展,形成互相依赖的特点。如常说的“在家靠父母,出门靠朋友”,“大树底下好乘凉”,“一个兄弟三个帮”,“老乡见老乡,两眼泪汪汪”。而西方文化强调独立和靠自己。他们认可的英雄是“自我成功的人”(a self-made man)或“白手起家的人”(going from rages to riches)。英语谚语说“自助者天助”(God helps those that help themselves),“自我是我们的核心”(Self is our center),“生活就是战斗”(Life is a battle)。这些谚语都告诫人们,只有靠自己,才能获得成功和安全感。
3 宗教信仰的影响
宗教在西方历史和思想文化上有着举足轻重的作用,同样也反映到社会生活的方方面面,对生活方式都有根深蒂固的影响。西方人多信____和天主教,而中国主信佛教、道教等。因此,中文讲“佛光普照”,“佛祖留心中”,“万信向佛”,而大量英语的习语出自圣经或希腊神话,如Helen of Troy(美人祸水),restless like Ulysses(劳顿不休),Achilles’s heel(唯一致命的弱点), Pandora’s box(大祸临头)。看到朋友打喷嚏会连忙说“God bless you”(上帝保佑你),因为根据西方人的古老传说,打喷嚏会喷出气息,连魂魄都会一起跑掉,当然需要上帝保佑一命了。又如英国人常常会对拙于言辞的人说“You should have kissed the Blarney Stone”(你早该亲一下布拉芮城的那块石头了)。原来在爱尔兰的Blarney城有快怪石,据说只要在这石头上亲一下,笨嘴笨舌的人就会变得口齿伶俐。再如,当有人说“My ears are burning.”(我的两耳发热了)就表示有人在背后造谣。中文常说的“望子成龙,望女成凤”,不能直接翻译成“dragon, phoenix ”,因为“龙”和“凤”在西方文化中是两种妖怪,而要翻译成“somebody”,即“人物”。可见,在这种情况下的翻译,多半不能直译,只能根据出处,尽量保留原文特点后,翻译出其潜台词。
4 风俗习惯的影响
不同民族的风俗习惯对语言同样有深远的影响。中国人见面习惯以“吃了吗?”“到哪去?”作为打招呼,有时并没有真正意义上的想获取信息,因此不能直译为“Have you had your meal?”“Where are you going?”只需简单地说“hello, hi ”就行了。曾有文章报道说,中方一位领导在与美国的老客户见面时,一时忘记了对方国家的习俗,为了表示热心和亲切,马上迎上去问:“你们去哪里了?可把你们盼来了。”这句话如果照直译,容易引起对方的误解甚至反感,翻译按照西方的习惯译为“It’s a lovely day today, isn’t it? And it’s a great pleasure to see you”,因为谈论天气这个中性话题,是西方人见面时的主要问候习惯,这样就使双方感到既自然又亲切,同时又为谈判营造了一种良好的气氛。
综上所述,中西文化的差异普遍存在,民族个性不仅不会因为时间的流逝而消失,还会随着文化精华的不断沉淀和社会历史的日益进步而影响一代又一代的人,这会让翻译过程中遇到许多复杂的困难和新的问题。因此,在翻译过程中,除了要精通两种语言外,还必须通晓两种或多种文化,经过仔细分析,精心推敲,才能有效地处理好各种文化差异现象。
参考文献
[1] 包惠南.文化语境与语言翻译[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.
[2] 金惠康.跨文化交际翻译[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2000.
[3] 刘季春.实用翻译教程[M].广州:中山大学出版社,2000.
[4] 杨自俭.英汉语比较与翻译(第三册)[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2002.
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是汉语言论文:汉字文化在小学识字教学中渗透的策略。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字文化在小学识字教学中渗透的策略
识字教学是小学语文教学的重要组成部分,是阅读和写作的基础,还是学习其他文化知识和课程的基础和工具。因此,识字教学效果的好与坏,直接关系到学生语文基础打得牢与否。教育部2011年11月在《义务教育语文课程标准(2011年版)》指出:“第一学段要求:感受汉字的形体美,对学习汉字有浓厚的兴趣;第二学段要求:养成主动识字的习惯;第三学段要求:有较强的独立识字能力。累计认识常用汉字3000个,其中2500个左右会写。”这些都充分说明国家教育部门非常重视识字教学中汉字所承载的文化因素的熏陶作用。
关于汉字文化,何久盈曾说,“汉字文化学是一门以汉字为核心的多边缘交叉学科”。我们可以理解为,一是从文化的角度来研究汉字并解释汉字现象;二是对汉字在构形中所携带的文化信息进行分析。从文化视角实施汉字教学,心理上要遵循学生的心理发展特点,方法上要符合汉字的字理特点,内容上最大限度地发挥汉字的表意特征,目标上更要侧重于培养学生良好的情感态度和价值观。因此,小学语文教师应当做到:
小学的识字教学是一个系统工程,从初学简单的象形字、指事字、会意字到复杂的形声字,汉字都不是孤立存在的。教师不能简单地将汉字看成是单个的个体,因为识字的过程也是学习、传承中国传统文化的过程。因此,教师教学汉字,既要照顾到字与字之间的文化联系,还要照顾到学生从低年级到高年级的认知发展能力的规律。
1.第一学段(1~2年级)识字教学重汉字形态还原,打识字教学基础。第一学段的学生在认知上擅长形象记忆,对直观、具体的材料记忆深刻。教师可以利用学生的这种感性特点,将看图识字作为识字教学的重要方法,引导学生将汉字和具体事物联系起来。这一学段,教学的重点应放在象形字及指事字上,可以用看图识字或浅析字理的方法进行教学。讲解中,特别是讲到典型的象形字,应当还原汉字的本来面目,让学生有更加直观的感受。苏教版小学语文课本中有些字的编排是根据课文内容出现的,并没有按照由简到繁的规律出现。因此,教师在教学这些字时有必要将简单的字先讲解,做好铺垫。比如,讲到“虫”,可以让学生回忆起前面的“鸟”、“鱼”,同类举例;讲到“友”,可以回忆起前面的“手”、“又”,讲点字理;讲到“乌”,可以让学生回忆起前面的“鸟”,并进行辨别; 讲到“羽”,可以回忆起前面的“鸟”、“毛”、“飞”,让学生连词成句;讲到“寸”,给学生讲讲关于“寸”的故事。又如,象形字的教学,笔画简单的可以直接出示图片;笔画复杂的如“兔”,可以形象地告诉学生哪里是兔头,哪里是兔身,哪里是兔尾。
2.第二学段(3~4年级)识字教学重汉字相互联系,提识字教学层次。第二学段的汉字教学,有了第一学段的积累,识字的教学方法上可以有更多的变化。
(1)教师启发学生找寻具有“亲属关系”的旧字,教授识字方法。比如,讲到“晶”,可以让学生回忆起前面的“品”、“明”,即回忆会意字的造字法;讲到“初、被”,要给学生讲讲“衣”,再延伸带有“礻”旁的字,并进行辨析。
(2)对形声字的批量生产有所提示。可以先找一些学生熟悉的字进行讲解。比如,学生学习新字“汪”,而学生已经学会了“河”、“湖”、“注”、“漠”等字,就可以告诉学生“氵”是形旁,表意;右面的是声旁,表音。学生也许会想到“江”这个字,左面的“氵”是形旁表意可以理解,但右面的“工” 是声旁表音不能理解。这时教师便可以顺势让学生找几个左面不是“氵”而右面带“工”的字,学生会找到许多,如“扛”“缸”“杠”。当学生读完这些字似乎已经悟出了一些道理。
(3)重点讲解具有文化内涵的字。第二学段中,大量出现会意字及形声字。教学上可以借字发挥,举一反三。比如,让学生思考:为何“信”是由“人”和“言”组成?纸张明明是木浆做的,为何是“纟”旁呢?“即”和“既”半边相同,用法不同,它们的区别在哪里呢……诸如此类,教师要勤于提问,激起学生兴趣后顺势讲解。
3.第三学段(5~6年级)识字教学重汉字文化内涵,传识字教学真经。第三学段的学生有了前两个学段的积累,有了一定的阅读量,有了对汉字文化的求知欲,教师需要加大对汉字文化的系统渗透。此学段的教学,不能因为学生的自学能力强,对识字的教学就放松了。而是应当更系统地引导学生深入了解汉字背后的文化内涵。比如,讲到“楚”,可以给学生讲讲“痛楚”这个词;讲到“昏”,可以给学生讲讲“婚”,以及它们的关系;讲到“冤”、“逸”可以给学生讲带“兔”的缘由;讲到“仁”字时,可以给学生讲解“仁”的含义,讲解“仁爱”的思想,等等。讲到多音字时,可以帮助学生辨别一些多音字的不同用法。这样,学生积累的汉字越多,了解的传统文化知识也越多。
这样,我们帮助学生建立一个有效记忆的识字系统,虽然加重了教学任务,但从长远看,教师既教给了学生识字的方法,又激发了学生识字的兴趣,还培养了学生自主识字的能力。这是语文教师应当具备的“授之以鱼,不如授之以渔”的教学理念。
学校的评价体系直接影响着教师的教学观念和教学行为。成绩成了指挥棒,学生成了考试的机器,教师就唯分数而教学。这种短视的教学评价体系导致教师教学汉字的目的性发生偏离。教师看不清低中高年级的识字教学差别,把更多的精力放在组词、造句等练习上;学生的识字能力、识字兴趣得不到发展,更谈不上语文素养的提高。如果学校能抛开以学生成绩的优劣来评价教学水平的高低和学生学习能力的强弱,给教师以更多的时间用文化渗透的方式进行汉字教学,势必带来可喜的成果。
在评价内容上,教师不能单纯追求识字的数量,而应多关注学生识字的质量及识字的能力、识字的兴趣等。学生在识字中出现回生现象,教师应适当安排,加以巩固。比如:教师用生字编故事、拓展有生字的美文进行阅读等。用学生较容易接受的形式测评学生。笔试不是唯一的检测方式,学生的发言、作业、对字词的见解、对字词的运用等等,都可以是学生学习效果的检测方式。在评价结果上,教师只分优、良,保护好学生的识字兴趣。
古代识字教学的教材,非常强调“文以载道”的功能,重视伦理道德教育和知识的传授。其中所讲的道理未必全是正确的,却涉及了多方面的文化信息。《三字经》、《弟子规》、《千字文》都是教育部规定的小学语文必读书目。教师在引导学生阅读文章的同时,选择相关的一些汉字进行深入剖析,学生在明白字义的同时,理解了文意,并洞晓了古文中所传授的道德内涵。古文虽离我们遥远,但教师对其中某些汉字进行文化渗透,其深邃的内涵孩童就能轻松掌握。如学习“孝”字,上面是“老”字头,表示老人、长辈;下面是“子”,表示孩子、晚辈。老在上,子在下,表示晚辈要孝敬、尊敬长辈的意思。孝敬长辈、尊敬长辈是自古以来就有的礼仪,是我们中华民族的传统文化,我们应将它传承下去。
识字教学是基础,教师必须带领学生扎扎实实地打好这个基础。如果不能够保证识字教学的基础教学地位,只是走马观花,阅读教学、写作教学再费力气,其根基都不会牢固。只有提高识字教学在语文教学中的地位,教师才能够重视识字教学,用高标准要求自己。只有重视识字教学,识字教学才会有有足够的时间保障,学生才能够有足够的时间被汉字文化潜移默化地熏陶。
我们之所以强调识字教学中渗透汉字文化,即是着眼于学生语文能力的整体提高。学生能认得许多汉字,也能将汉字所连成的句子读顺,但读完后却不知道整个句子的意思,这似乎是不可思议的事情。记住汉字,记清字形,并不意味着识字任务的完成;而通过识记能够理解字义,并最终能够自由阅读,才真正达到了识字的终极目的。
识字教学是小学语文教学的基础,是阅读和写作的基础。无论是识字教学、阅读教学、写作教学都不是单列的,三者是有机结合的。识字教学本就是在教学课文中完成的,学生学习生字需要在课文中理解消化,在写作中具体运用。因此,教师在三者的具体教学中需要整体把握,有机结合。比如,第一学段的教学以识字教学为重点,并不意味着第一学段就放弃阅读与写作教学。因为语文的教学是长期积累的过程,在抓重点的同时要兼顾其他。教师在布置教育部规定的阅读书目之外,还应当鼓励学生在课外进行大量的阅读,以提升学生的识字量及培养学生良好的语感。教师在每一个学段都应针对学生年龄,布置灵活多样的写作题目,如:运用新学词语编写广告词、仿照句子造句子,或是给几个作文题让学生选择写作等,帮助学生巩固所学字词。阅读、写作和识字并不冲突,而是相得益彰的。
目前小学语文教师普遍缺乏汉字学相关知识。小学语文教师的字理知识来自于《现代汉语》课的文字部分,其课时少,涉及的内容也少。针对小学语文教师的培训几乎没有把汉字学作为培训内容的。由此可见,小学语文教师的素养先天、后天都存在识字教学理论的缺失。鉴于以上情况,小学语文教师的识字教学能力要得到提高,平时就应注重积累,自我学习。一方面,补习汉字学理论知识,找寻相关的资料进行查阅,长期积累;另一方面,补习识字教学方法。
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语言是构成文学作品的基本元素,是对人生体验的文化表征。而文学作品又隐含对生活的思考、价值取向和特定的意识形态。阅读英美文学作品,是了解西方文化的一条重要途径,可以接触到支撑表层文化的深层文化,即西方文化中带根本性的思想观点、价值评判、西方人经常使用的视角,以及对这些视角的批评。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:语言文化教育在外语教学中的作用相关论文。仅供大家参考!
摘要:外语教学的根本目的也是在实施一种文化教育,所以在实施这种语言文化教育的同时就不能仅仅向学生传输语言本身的知识,而要结合语言特点赋予其丰富的语言文化信息,才能更好促进外语学习的成效。本文旨在讨论英语文化教育在外语教学中所起的重要作用。
关键词:外语教学 文化教育 背景信息
我国外语教育在相当长的一段时间里受结构主义和行为主义的影响而偏重在语言形式的教学上,文化教育在外语教学中所占的比重甚低。近年来随着人们对语言与文化,文化与交际之间的关系的认识逐渐加深,人们开始肯定语言与文化之间的不可分割以及文化因素在跨文化交际中的重要性。本文重点论述外语教学过程中语言文化教育所起的不可忽视的作用。
谈到英语语言文化,我们不可能不谈英国和美国。英国文化源远流长,经历了长期、复杂的发展演变过程。在这个过程中,文学本体以外的各种现实的、历史的、政治的、文化的力量对文学发生着影响,文学内部遵循自身规律,历经盎格鲁—萨克逊、文艺复兴、新古典主义、浪漫主义、现实主义、现代主义等不同历史阶段。战后英国文学大致呈现从写实到实验和多元的走势。美国文学在`19世纪末就已不再是“英国文学的一个分支”。进入20世纪,美国文学日趋成熟,成为真正意义上独立的、具有强大生命力的民族文学。战后美国文学历经50年代的新旧交替、60年代的实验主义精神浸润、70年代至世纪末的多元化发展阶段,形成了不同于以往历史时期的鲜明特色和特征。
英语的根源很复杂,包括拉丁语、日耳曼语、凯尔特语、挪威语等等,这样一种语言难免不会出现混乱。但它同时也变得更富有弹性,也更强大。在需要新词时,英语本身设置的障碍很少。出版商每年都要推出记录大量新创词的字典,而英语随时准备接纳它们。
目前,全世界有3.8亿人把英语作为第一语言,大约2.5亿人将其作为第二语言;另外还有10亿人正在学习它;全球大约1/3的人口每天都会在一定程度上接触到它;并且据估计到 2050年,世界上一半的人都能比较流利地使用这种语言。它是全球化的语言,广泛应用在国际商务、政治和外交领域中;它也是电脑和互联网的通用语言。你会在罗马街头的广告上发现它;从东京的流行歌曲里听到它;在柬埔寨官方文件中读到它;德国的电视和广播中有它的专门节目;法国的商务学校教授它;波利维亚内阁开会时,它是主要的表达工具。诚然,这种在14世纪的英格兰只有“下等人”才讲的口语,已经在漫长的历史中发展演变为全球通用的语言。
语言是构成文学作品的基本元素,是对人生体验的文化表征。而文学作品又隐含对生活的思考、价值取向和特定的意识形态。阅读英美文学作品,是了解西方文化的一条重要途径,可以接触到支撑表层文化的深层文化,即西方文化中带根本性的思想观点、价值评判、西方人经常使用的视角,以及对这些视角的批评。
英美文学是对时代生活的审美表现,是英国人民和美国人民创造性使用英语语言的产物。英语表意功能强,文体风格变化多,或高雅、或通俗、或含蓄、或明快、或婉约、或粗犷,其丰富的表现力和独特的魅力在英美作家的作品里得到了淋漓尽致的发挥。阅读优秀的英美文学作品,可以感受到英语音乐性的语调和五光十色的语汇,回味其“弦外之音”。
因此,开展外国文化研究,有助于我们开阔眼界,了解外国文化,丰富我们的知识,启迪我们的智慧,有效提高外语教师队伍的业务水平和综合素质;从而更好促进外语教学的发展。
首先在教材选编上应使语言教学和文化教育同步发展。因此在语篇选取时要考虑那些语言精华的文学作品和介绍语言国家风俗习惯的语言材料。随着语言水平的提高,文化愈益显得重要,教材中便可以选入一些反映深层文化的语言材料。
其次在文化教学过程中要坚持实用性和循序渐进性原则。教师可以采用多种方法进行语言文化教学,注解,实践,对比,融合等都是常用教学方法。
另外在课外补充上要下大功夫。教师要根据学生水平布置难度相当的外语原版读物任务,同时包括阅读心得,主题概括和课堂讨论等方式来巩固阅读效果。要求学生根据不同的阅读材料采用不同的阅读方法,有的要掠读,有的要精读,还有的就要反复咀嚼,以此来大量摄取语言文化知识,深层挖掘语言背景信息。
整个语言文化教育过程中教师要教授学生学会主动积极地创造条件和环境去学习和了解语言文化。
我们提倡跨文化交际的外语教育,目的在于培养和加强外语学习者的跨文化交际能力和文化适应能力。未来社会对人才的需要要求外语教学中的文化渗透,未来社会的外语人才,不仅仅要具有外语语言的自如运用能力和外语交际能力,同时还要求是具有较高的人文素质的国际化外语人才。
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我国教育部于2004年特别制定并于2007年进一步修订了《大学英语课程教学要求》(下称《要求》),规定大学英语课程设置要有助于学生“个性化学习方法的形成”和“自主学习能力的发展”, 同时指导性地将大学英语选修课划分为:语言技能、语言应用、语言文化和专业英语四大类课程,明确了除“保证学生在整个大学期间的英语语言水平稳步提高”外,大学英语课程还应着重提高其“综合文化素养”, 以适应我国经济发展和国际交流的需要。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:语言文化类英语选修课中批判性思维的培养相关论文。仅供大家参考!
语言文化类英语选修课中批判性思维的培养全文如下:
摘 要:本文从当前大学英语选修课建设亟待规范和创新的实际要求出发,以有关批判性思维的理论研究作为依据,结合《大学英语课程教学要求》的有关指导思想, 针对性地对大学英语选修课中语言文化类课程中自主学习能力、教学模式设计和课程评估方法提出了一系列建设性探讨。
关键词: 大学英语 语言文化类选修课 批判性思维 课程设计。
在过去几年里, 我国高校公共英语教学中已经普遍增设了选修课( 或称“ 通选课”) 。高等院校大学英语教师们对如何建设科学、规范和有效的选修课体系进行了大量实践探索, 有关语言教学研究者们也就此撰写了许多相关研究论述。然而,其中专门针对关于选修课中语言文化类课程中批判性思维培养的论述却并不多见。这使得开展文化类选修课的英语教师在需要完成更高教学任务要求的同时缺乏相关的教学理论的指导。随着英语选修课建设的不断深入, 如何科学规范地开展语言文化类课程教学, 通过有针对性的课程设计帮助学生培养其批判性思维已成为一个值得所有大学英语教师思考的课题。
我国教育部于2004年特别制定并于2007年进一步修订了《大学英语课程教学要求》(下称《要求》),规定大学英语课程设置要有助于学生“个性化学习方法的形成”和“自主学习能力的发展”, 同时指导性地将大学英语选修课划分为:语言技能、语言应用、语言文化和专业英语四大类课程,明确了除“保证学生在整个大学期间的英语语言水平稳步提高”外,大学英语课程还应着重提高其“综合文化素养”, 以适应我国经济发展和国际交流的需要。
《要求》所建议的大学英语中的语言文化类选修课,是以英语为载体,对非英语专业本科生实施的文化类选修课程教学,根据各校师资、教学资源和学生的具体情况进行开设, 以充分尊重学生个性为前提由学生在全校范围内自由选择。这类课程尤其“兼有工具性和人文性”,是帮助学生“拓宽知识、了解世界文化的素质教育课程”(《要求》,2007)。
目前我国各高校已开设的语言文化类选修课主要涉及: 文学诗歌类, 如《美国文学赏析》、《英诗鉴赏》;人文历史类,如《西方简史》、《美国文学史》; 文化知识类, 如《西方礼仪文化》、《美国大学校园文化概览》;以及艺术鉴赏类,如《影视作品欣赏》、《艺术鉴赏》等等。
然而, 这些文化类英语选修课的开展主要还处于开课教师各自为政, 根据自己的经验、兴趣及特长对所开课程进行设计和展开教学的阶段,这就使得选修课教学在为大学英语教育注入了“个性化”和“提高学生综合文化素养”等特色的同时出现了因教师对课程设计整体把握不同导致的“科学性”、“规范性”以及“有效性”的千差万别。
要讨论批判性思维, 我们应该首先对西方学术界给出的一些具有代表性的定义进行一个简单回顾。就曾对学界纷繁复杂的论述进行了一次梳理, 认为常见的与批判性思维紧密相关的还有“ 批判性分析(critical analysis)”、“批判性意识(criticalconsciousness)”、及“批判性自我反思(criticalreflection)”等概念。 他认为批判性思维的“批判之力”主要在于思维者接受某种观点或结论时进行评价和辨别的能力, 这种能力使思维者在假设的基础上检验命题,并发现偏见和正确看法、以及看法与事实之间的区别。被誉为现代批判性思维之父的美国哲学家、心理学家和教育家杜威将批判性思维中的“反思”定义为: 对自己的一种信仰或所偏好的某种知识形式, 从其所依存的基础上和可能得出的结论上, 进行积极的、持续的、仔细的审视。另一位美国批判性思维运动的开拓者Robert·Ennis则在1991年将这一思维形式精炼地表述为:
“为决定相信什么或做什么而进行的合理的、反省的思维”。Ennis的定义把批判性思维作为一种“思维活动”, 强调“个人判断”
及采取的相应的取舍(知识)的“决策”。一个较新的观点来自于把批判性思维定义为一种调查研究的说法,认为其目的是探究一种情景、现象、问题或假设, 以达到整合所有有效信息并能够有说服力地证明结论或假设。与其他众多从纯思维角度所给的定义不同,Kurfiss把批判性思维比作一种调查研究活动, 使批判性思维过程更加易于理解的同时强调了“ 信息整合的效度”和“说服力”两条标准,而“批判”活动的基础是“有效信息”或“知识”,因此,在大学生日常知识学习过程中注重批判性思维技术训练并有意识地鼓励其批判性思维精神的培养, 能逐步提高其整体的批判性思维能力和创新能力。
1990年,在美国和加拿大教育界发表的《批判性思维:一份专家一致同意的关于教育评估的目标和指示的声明》将批判性思维认知能力的核心分解分为: 阐述、分析、评估、推论、解释和元认知六个方面, 认为其中的“元认知”是一种“自我的、有意识地监控认知行为, 以及这些认知行为中所运用的认知手段和所引起的结果, 特别是以一种质疑、反省或校正推论或结果的态度来分析、评价自己的推论性判断”。
批判性思维还可被细分为认知技能(cognitive skills)和情感意向(affectivedispositions),也即我们平常所说的批判性思维技能和批判性思维精神。前者可以说是批判性思维具体的运作和构成机制,偏重于指导学习中的实际操作; 而后者则指思维者个性气质中的一种趋向性, 起到主观引导作用。
“世界高等教育会议”在1998年发表的《面向21世纪高等教育宣言:观念与行动》的第一项议题中指出教育的使命是: 培养批评性和独立的态度。这一态度已经被确立成为当今许多西方国家高等教育的主要目标。而我国的“批判性思维”教育和研究起步较晚,“只在近三、四年,才有对国外批判性思维教育的零星介绍出现”。
大学英语教学中的语言文化类选修课与批判性思维的培养可谓是双向互动关系。一方面,带有批判性思维技能训练的语言文化类选修课, 能有效地帮助学生建立其批判性思维精神;另一方面,在主动的逐步增强的“批判性思维精神”驱使下, 学生又能够在学习中不断强化其批判性思维技能,进而提高其自主学习能力、人文素养以及思辨能力。
下面我们将遵循《课程要求》指出的新时期大学英语教学改革的方向, 结合批判性思维能力的培养目标, 对大学英语中语言文化类选修课的课程设计作一些建设性的讨论。
《课程要求》明确指出, 教学模式改革成功的一个重要标志就是学生个性化学习方法的形成和学生自主学习能力的发展。
思维过程具有“ 内隐性”和“ 自动化”的特点, 人们在进行思维时往往并未意识到自己是如何思考的或自己的思考方式具有何种趋向性。在英语提高阶段的选修课教学中, 教师应正确理解自己在文化选修课中的“ 辅助者”角色, 力求放弃课堂中的“ 主角”地位,而仅应为学生规划出学习范围和方向,起到穿针引线的作用,利用文化类课程的知识性、趣味性、引起学生的共鸣或好奇, 为学生搭建一个通过自主收索并消化信息的平台。同时,教师应起到科学调动学生自己“计划、选择、组织和评价学习内容的”的主动性,使其充分意识到自己的思维能动力, 树立起培养自己批判性思维精神的自信心。
教学模式主要包括两个方面:第一,教学内容的设计;第二,教学活动的设计。《要求》中建议学生充分利用校园网及互联网等网络资源进行学习。教师应该利用合理的教学内容和教学活动的设计, 对学生的批判性思维技能进行科学训练。当今社会网络咨询飞速发展,学生可以非常容易地通过网络收索到丰富但略嫌庞杂的相关知识。选修课教师可为学生精心设计教学内容和讨论话题; 建议合理的关键词或关键话题的网上搜索; 或是推荐一些优秀的原版英文网站或链接地址, 并且据此安排相关课堂活动任务,如:要求学生将收集到的原版英文资料打印出来进行小组讨论或者将其浓缩为简单易懂的PPT文件。在这些过程中,学生会自然而然地摸索Kurfiss所说的“调查研究”技能, 对所搜集的资料进行“选择”和“有效整合”。为了在课堂中参与小组讨论或进行上台讲解, 学生必须要对应该“做什么和相信什么”作出分析、解释、推论、说明或自我校对, 以使自己的发言能具有更强的“说服力”, 从而引导学生逐步提高其跨文化交际能力。
《课程要求》倡议教师采用“ 过程性评估”,其中排列在前两位的“学生自我评估”
和“学生相互间的评估”同样是对学生批判性思维的最有效训练和考验。针对这一倡议,教师可以根据“元认知”理论,调动学生的“自我监控”和“反思”等认知手段, 积极地通过“质疑、反省或校正推论或结果的态度”来分析评价自己和其他同学的观点、论述方式、和语言表达等综合表现。具体的做法可以是: 设计出一套“全面、客观、科学、准确”但又可操作性较强的评估标准,让学生充分了解应该从那些方面去评价自己和同学,通过反复的相互比较,学生逐渐熟悉了导致“课堂成功表现”的构成因素, 因而更容易发现自己学习策略中的不足, 并及时做出“取舍”和改进。
在开展语言文化类选修课时, 大学英语教师应有意识地将语言学习自然而有效地融合到其他文化知识体系的学习过程中, 通过主观情绪的调动帮助学生提升其批判性思维精神; 通过客观教学手段和评价手段的设计强化训练其批判性思维技能。最终达到使学生能主动地、有意识地调 动其批判性思维技能, 逐步建立起自己个性化的学习策略, 稳步提高其英语综合运用能力的同时有效地拓展知识面, 提升跨文化交际能力并最终建立其稳定的批判性思维体系。
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新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
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Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
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it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
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生产力经济学是研究社会生产方式统一体中的生产力及其运动规律的经济学分支学科。 研究社会生产力发展运动规律的学科。 把人们对生产力认识的注意力从过去局限于生产力要素分解引导到从生产力要素的构成和结合上来把握生产力,从生产力要素不同的构成和结合方式上去求得最佳的经济效益的一门新兴科学。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS。仅供大家参考!
AGING AND PRODUCTIVITY AMONG ECONOMISTS(衰老和生产力经济学家)全文如下:
Abstract:-Economists' productivity over their careers and as measured by publication in leading journals declines very sharply with age. There is no difference by age in the probability that an article submitted to a leading journal will be accepted. Rates of declining productivity are no greater among the very top publishers than among others, and the probability of acceptance is increasingly related to the author's quality rather than the author's age.
It is well known that productivity declines with age in a wide range of activities. Lehman (1953) suggests an early peak in productivity in a variety of scientific and artistic endeavors, and Diamond (1986) documents the pattern for several scholarly pursuits. Levin and Stephan (1992) provide clear evidence that this decline exists even after careful attempts to account for individual and cohort differences. Fair (1994) finds declines in physical ability among elite runners, as does Lydall (1968,pp. 113 passim) in physical abilities of the population generally. In this study we examine productivity declines in our own field. The main new results arise from our use of two different types of information, the equivalent of household and establishment data, to study the stone field over essentially the same period of time. Section I discusses the general results on aging and productivity, whereas section II presents evidence of the importance of heterogeneity.
Using the American Economic Association (AEA) Directory of Members, we identified tenured economics faculty at 17 top research institutions and obtained the years of their Ph.D. degrees.[1] With the citation index of the Journal of Economic Literature we replicated portions of the curricala vitae of each of the 208 economists currently in the economics departments of those institutions who received Ph.D. degrees between 1959 and 1983.[2]
To measure productivity we construct three indexes, combining papers published in refereed journals. Prior research suggests that, at least in terms of salary determination, the returns from nonreferred publications are quite low Sauer (1988), so that we ignore such publications in calculating these measures. I1 weights an article by the journal where it appears based on citations to that journal, using values generated by Laband and Piette (1994). This index distinguishes strongly among journals. For example, the Journal of Political Economy has a weight of 59.1, whereas Economic Inquiry has a weight of 7.9. In constructing I1 we use the weights associated with the decade in which the articles were published. I2 distinguishes somewhat less among journals by assigning all articles in the nine "core" journals identified by Laband and Piette a value of 1, whereas all other journals are valued at 0.5.[3] Finally, I3 gives all papers a weight of 1. Coauthored articles were given half credit, consistent with Sauer's (1988) findings on the economic returns to coauthorship.[4]
We measure the change in productivity over the life cycle by the percentage change in the number of publications from 9-10 years past the Ph.D. to the periods 14-15 years and then 19-20 years after. For most of the elite economists the base period is equivalent (accounting for publication lags) to the time of tenure, when one might expect that incentives to produce are at a peak. Using two-year publication records at each point reduces the effects of noise in the performance measures. One might argue that still other scientific life-cycle mileposts (e.g., attaining a full professorship) should be accounted for too (and to some extent the 14-15-year point does this). But our main purpose is simply to provide detailed evidence on the relationship to age, and our data are not sufficient to infer the impact of every possible milepost.
Table 1 contains data on productivity loss by Ph.D. vintage measured by each of the three indexes. If we consider I1 and I2, the two indexes that take journal quality into account, the decline appears to be quite substantial. Between years 9-10 and 14-15 elite economists as a group lose 29 to 32% of their output. From years 9-10 to 19-20 they lose 54 to 60%. In other words, productivity losses are on the order of 5 % per year from the time of peak productivity. However, the losses do not appear to accelerate over these 10 years of the economists' work lives. The loss from year 10 to year 20 is approximately twice that from year 10 to year 15.
Another way to study the age-productivity relationship is to examine journals rather than individuals. The first row in each pair of years in table 2 shows the ages of authors of full-length refereed articles in several leading journals (American Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, and Quarterly Journal of Economics).[5] The median age of authors in the 1980s and 1990s was 36. Scholars over age 50 when their studies are published are a minute fraction of all authors in these journals. Creative economics at the highest levels is mainly for the young. That is as true in the 1990s as it was in the 1960s, although the age distribution of authors does seem to have shifted slightly rightward in the late 1970s.
The second row in each pair in table 2 shows the age distributions of random samples of the membership of the American Economic Association in years near those for which the authors' ages were tabulated.[6] The distributions are heavily concentrated between 36 and 50. Decadal variations reflect rapid expansion of American universities in the middle and late 1960s, stagnation in the 1970s and much of the 1980s, and a possible fragmentation of the profession in the 1980s as specialized associations expanded. A substantial percentage of AEA members is over age 50 implying that older economists are greatly underrepresented among authors in major journals relative to their presence among those who view themselves as part of the economics profession.[7]
Among the several groups of physical scientists analyzed by Levin and Stephan (1992) the decline of productivity (high-quality publishing) with age was very pronounced. McDowell's (1982) small samples of scholars in a variety of disciplines suggest less rapid declines in productivity with age (in publications unweighted by quality), with the sharpest declines and earliest peaks in the "hard" sciences, and later peaks among English professors and historians. The evidence from our two very different types of samples of economists and economics publishing that account for the quality of publications suggests that, for whatever reason, economics is at least as much a "young person's game" as are the physical sciences.
The evidence in section I documents the decline in productivity at the sample means. Information on the age-productivity relationship at the extremes of the sample is interesting in its own right and might help shed some light on the possible causes of the apparent decline in productivity with age. The simplest test compares productivity losses among the top early performers with that of the entire sample of economists at elite institutions. Among the top 10% of early producers the mean values of I1, I2, and I3 at year 20 were 64, 50, and 22%, respectively. These means are quite close to those listed for the entire sample in table 1. Thus on average early promise seems to be sustained in this sample. Of the 12 top researchers on whom we have 20 years of data, five were still among the top dozen producers at year 20.
These conclusions are confirmed when we examine the entire sample. For each index Ij, j = 1, 2, 3, we estimate b0 and b1 in
Multiple line equation(s) cannot be represented in ASCII text. (1)
Table 3 reports the parameter estimates. For all three indexes productivity in year 20 is positively and significantly related to productivity in year 10. There is also substantial productivity loss. The joint hypothesis that b0 = 1 and b1 = 0 (i.e., no productivity loss) is rejected (F-statistics of 134, 152, and 39, respectively). Productivity loss is least severe in I3, which weights all journals equally, regardless of quality.
If productivity losses were less among economists with high early productivity (high Ij,10), b1 would be negative. In fact, for two of the three indexes the estimated b1is effectively zero. We cannot reject the hypothesis of a linear relationship between late and early productivity. Only for I3 does it appear that productivity loss is higher for top early producers, and even here the effect is quite small. An economist in the top 10% of this sample at year 10 loses only an additional 0.5 (unweighted) paper compared to an average researcher in this sample at year 10. The very top producers in this elite sample keep on producing high-quality research, but at a slower rate. Those who were not at the top early in their careers slow down as rapidly as the top people, but their slowdown leads them to publish increasingly in lower quality outlets.
Another way of examining heterogeneity is to look at how authors of different quality free in the publication process conditional on their efforts. We obtained data on a random sample of initial submissions to a major general journal during a four-month period in 1991. (Some of the data were initially supplied by the journal's office for use in Hamermesh (1994).) Refereeing at this journal is double-blind, so that the chance that referees (though possibly not the editors) were affected by authors' reputations is reduced. The ages of the authors of these 313 papers are measured as of 1993 to account for the probable two-year average lag between the submission of a paper and its publication.
The simple fact in these additional data is that acceptance rates at this journal are remarkably constant by author's age. The probabilities of an article being accepted are 0.122, 0.114, and 0.123 in the three age groups 50, respectively.[8] On average there is no decline with age in the acceptance rate of papers submitted to this journal.[9] Probits on the acceptance of a submission that also included variables indicating whether the author was a member of the AEA, was in a top 20 department (as listed in Blank, 1991), was resident in North America, or was female, and the author's prior citation record yield an identical conclusion. The declining presence of older authors in top economics journals does not occur because older authors who keep submitting papers suffer higher rejection rates.
The probits included interaction terms between indicator variables for age and the extent of citations. (Low-cited economists were defined as those with fewer than 10 citations per year, well-cited with at least 10.) As figure 1 clearly shows, acceptance rates for each age group differ sharply by citation status. Comparing authors age 36-50 to those over 50, it is quite clear that the degree of heterogeneity increases with age. This appears to be less true in comparing the oldest to the youngest group, but that inference is due mainly to a very small sample. (Only six authors under age 36, the future superstars of the profession, were well cited.) The general tenor of the combined results from this sample is that the profession signals to less able scholars that their work no longer meets the profession's highest standards, and most of them respond by reducing their submissions to the highest quality journals.
We have followed the careers of economists and measured the demographic characteristics of publishers in leading journals. The evidence seems quite clear that publishing diminishes with age, especially publishing in leading journals, at rates as rapid as in the physical sciences. Indeed, remarkably few older people publish successfully in the scholarly outlets on which the profession places the highest value. As economists age, those who were the most productive early in their careers are among the few "survivors" still contributing to scholarship through the leading scholarly outlets.
Whether this relationship is due to natural declines in capacity or decreased incentives to produce is extremely difficult to discern. Unlike athletes, where it is likely that pure physical deterioration causes the reduction in productivity with age, among scholars even the fairly subtle facts that we have uncovered can be marshaled as support for each of these competing hypotheses. Without direct observation on how scholars' use of time changes as they age, we are unlikely to be able to distinguish between explanations of the declining ageproductivity relationship in science.
Berger, Mark, and Frank Scott, "Changes in U.S. and Southern Economics Deparment Rankings over Time," Growth and Change 21 (Summer 1990), 21-31.
Blank, Rebecca, "The Effects of Double-Blind versus Single-Blind Reviewing," American Economic Review 81 (Dec. 1991), 10411067.
Diamond, Arthur, "The Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Mathemati cians and Scientists," Journal of Gerontology 41 (1986), 520-525.
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文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
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英语和汉语是两种不同的语言。每种语言都有各自独立和分明的系统,在形态和句法方面二者存在很大差异。然而,两种语言之间又存在一些相似性。比如在主谓词序和动宾词序上是一致的。正是由于英汉两种语言既有共同点又有不同点,所以在翻译实践中,我们不能千篇一律地使用一种方法进行翻译。直译和意译是重要的翻译理论和基本的研究主题。直译是既保持原文内容、又保持原文形式的翻译方法或翻译文字。
意译,也称为自由翻译Free Translataion,它是只保持原文内容、不保持原文形式的翻译方法或翻译文字。直译Literal Translation与意译相互关联、互为补充,同时,它们又互相协调、互相渗透,不可分割。通过对直译与意译二者关系的正确研究,更多地认识了解到什么时候采用直译、什么时候采用意译,在运用直译与意译的时候所应该掌握的技巧、遵循的原则和应该注意的问题,最终达到提高翻译能力及水平的目的。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:Literal Translation And Free Translataion。仅供大家参考!
Literal Translation And Free Translataion(直译和自由翻译) 全文如下:
How to use literal translation and free translation proper?
People often discuss literal translation and free translation. We lay stress on how to handle two different kinds of language. And which way of translation is better to use to translation a sentence. Especially, target language must express what source language meams, distortion is not allowed. Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive, contrarily, they are complementary. Translation literally,if possible,or appeal to free translation. Literal translation retains original skill. So it is get on for original. When literal translation, encounter some obstades, people often use free translation.
Free translation expresses general idea of the original, and can be accepted by readers. A good translation composition contains literal translation and free translation.
1. What is the conception of literal translation and free translation?
2. How to use literal translation properly?
2.1 Translate literally,if possible.
2.2 Literal translation≠word-for-word translation.
2.3 Some sentences should not translate literally.
3. How to use free translation properly?
3.1 If it has some trouble to understand a sentence in using literal translation, use free translation.
3.2 Don not add personal enmotion to the original works.
3.3 Free translation skill needs extensive knowledge and culture of both source language and target language.
If use literal translation and free translation proper, you will success in translating a composition.
Literal translation/Free translation/Source language/Targer
language/Word-for-word/Original
Literal translation and free translation are two basic skills of translation. Literal translation refers to translate a sentence originally, keep the original message form, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on. Translation would be fluent and easy to comprehend by target language readers.
Free translation refers to, according to the meaning of the original, without paying attention to the details and translation would also be fluent and natural. Free translation need not pay attention to the form of the original, including construction of the original sentences,meaning of the original works, matapher of the original and so on . But free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original and translators must consider the original carefully, know its stress, translate it natually, express the meaning of the original. Free translation is a skill which translators must know the culture of both source language and target language, and must have extensive knowledge.
When translating, should not use literal translation completely or use free translation completely. According to the passage which you are translating, you should use literal translation frequently and use free translation when neccessary.
But what kind of translation is literal translation? And what kind of translation is free translation?
For example:①
1) Don't lock the stable door after the hourses has been stolen.
Literal translation: 不要等马被盗后,才去锁楖门.
Free translation: 不要贼走关门.
2) Smashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor it is a way to make social problem evaporate.
Literal translation: 砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮,也不能使社会问题烟消云散.
Free translation: 砸镜子并不能解决实际问题.
Form the example 1), free translation is better than literal translation. From the example 2), literal translation is better than free translation. But how to use literal translation and free translation? There is a sentence:"Translate literally,if possible, or appeal to free translation."
2.1 Translate literally, if possible.
Why translate, if possible? What is the advantage of literal translation?
Generally, rhetoric is often used in a passage to make the passage lively. Literal translation retains the rhetoric of the original, so it is lively as the original. But free translation only expresses the general idea of original, lively rhetoric of the original disappeared. So generally speaking, literal translation is a good choice in translation.
For example:②
3) For ma father know and I know that if you only dig enough a pasture can be made free.
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道,我也知道,只要挖到一定程度,早晚可以在这里辟出个牧场的.
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道,我也知道,功到自然成.
4) For Kino and Juana this was the meaning of morning of their lives, comparable only to the day when the baby had been born.
Literal translation: 在Kino和Juana看来,这是他们一生中最了不起的早晨,只有宝宝出生的那一天,才可以与之媲美.
Free translation: Kino和Juana以为,这一天非常重要.
Free translation of examples 3) and 4), only express the general idea of the original sentences. It is too simple. Metaphor and discribtion of the original sentences hava dissappeared. After free translation, it was inferior and dull. So it is undesirable. But the literal translation of example 3) and 4) is clearer than the free translation. Actually, literal translation is the chief way of translation. It is close to the original, lively and natural. It is acceptable. Acceptableness is very important in translation. From theory of translation angle, translation is a theroy which uses target language to express the idea, content and style of source language.It should accord with the culture and customs of the target language. Translation not only does express the idea and style of the original message, but also need to accord with the culture and customs of the target language, so that the translation can easy be accepted by target language readers. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the idea and style of the source language. The advantage of literal translation is that almostly retain the idea and style of the original. So most of translators like to use literal translation.
From all above, that is the reason of "translate literally, if possible."
2.2 Literal translation≠word-for-word translation.
At first, which kind of translation is word-for-word translation? Word-for-word translation is that: When translating, consider every words. Every words of source language is translated cooridnatly.
For example:③
5) It was an old and ragged moon.
Word-for-word translation: 那是一个又老又破的月亮.
6) Many of his ideas are especially interesting to modern youth.
Word-for-word translation: 他的许多思想对当代青年特别有趣.
From the example 5) and 6), we know word-for-word translation does not do any changes to source language. The form is close to the original, but it does not express the meaning of the source language. Strictly speaking, it is not translation. Nevertheless, some translation which did some change to source language and the structure of target language is also the same as source language, the translation is smooth, but the meaning and the style are far from the original, usually, target language readers did not know what it said. This is also word-for-word translation.
For example: ④
7) Every atom of your flesh is as dear to me as my own: in pain and sickness it would still be dear.
Word-for-word translation: 你的肉中的每一个原子,对我来说,都像我自己一样亲;即使在病痛中,仍然是亲的.
8) Being a teacher is being present at the creation, when the clay begin to breathe.
Word-for-word translation: 当一名教师意味着是创造的见证人,他目睹人体开始呼吸,开始了生命.
Translation of 7) and 8) are smooth. But they do not accord with the expressive way of Chinese. It is word-for-word translation.
From all above, word-for-word translation is so starchy, goes after the form of source language that it never think of the effect of target language. Because word-for-word translation does not accord with the expressive way of target language, it is obscure, hard to understand it even makes target language readers did not know what does translator want to express. Word-for-word translation makes target language readers confused. It is unqualified translation.
Literal translation also keeps the general form of source language,and keeps the structure and the metaphor of the original. But literal translation does make some neccessary adjustment, make target language smooth, clean and acceptable. After reading, target language readers can have almost the same feeling as the source language readers. But word-for-word translation only translate word by word, it is stiff and unitelligible. Quality of literal translation is good. Word-for-word translation is inferior. Literal translation and word-for-word translation can give different feeling to target language readers. All translation which is hard to accept, which have bad effect, which message is indistinct, which meaning is far from the original is word-for-word translation. This kind of translation is abortive.
Some translation though that all translation keeps the form of the original is literal translation. That is erroneous. They confuse the conception of literal translation with word-for-word translation. These translators translate like this: first, they look up the meaning of every word of source language in dictionary. Then, they combine the meaning of every word, never do any change. They do not know what translation is, so word-for-word translation emerge. But excellent translators know the meaning of the original. When translating, they do some neccessary adjustment, make target language clearer, smooth and acceptable. They know the difference between word-for-word translation and literal translation. They can use literal translation properly, it is a skill of translation.
All in all. literal translation is not word-for-word translation. Literal translation is acceptable and nimble.
2.3 Some sentences should not translate literally.
Some source language sentences are very difficult to translate literally. It only though of the meaning of surface, translate it literally, the result is unintelligible and indistinct. Some sentences do not accord with expressive way in target language. Different country has different culture,different language, different custom and different way to express the same meaning, different language has different way about metaphors, and has different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person. So do in abroad. But Chinese idioms are unintelligible in western countries. In these suituations, if translate literally, usually, it would have bad effect and be unacceptable. When target language readers read, they could not know the exact meaning of source language. Because the message which target language express was vague.
There are two examples: ⑤
9) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that hold us in.
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校,他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子.
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学,一定要出人头地.
10) Their legs mored a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.
Literal translation: 他的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着,像做得很好的木偶一样,他们随身携带着黑色的恐怖柱子.
Free translation: 他们每向前迈一步,腿就抖动一下,好似精制的木偶一样,他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气.
From the two examples, literal translation is unintelligible even absurd. But after had translated it freely, translation became cleaner, smooth, acceptable and accord with the culture of target language.
But in which suituation translators should not translate literally? How to use literal translation correctly?
Any source language which does not accord with the expressive way of target language should not use literal translation. For example: In example 9), "Break out the pot that hole us in", it is an English idiom, it means do something successful. But how to translate it into Chines?There is also an idiom in China. It almost has the same meaning as"Break out of the pot that hold us in". It is "出人头地". So when translating that sentence translators should not use literal translation, translators should use free translation.
And how to use literal translation correctly? First, know source language and target language culture as much as possible and translators should have extensive knowledge with the problems which the original wrote or talk about, translators should be conversant. We often have experience like that: Because lake of some knowledge that somebody talking about, even after others explained, we still did not know or understand. So before translators translating some materials, especially some proffessional materials translators must grasp some knowledge about the materials. For example, if translate some materials about economy,translators should know some knowledge about economy; if translate some material about news, translators should know some knowledge about news;if translate some professional materials,translators should know some knowledge about that proffession, or be an export of that proffession. If translator was a man who did not know something about the material which he wanted to translate, his translation would be unqualified. Second, comprehend source language message correctly and thoroughly. It is very important. Translators should not only know the surface meaning of the original and translators should read through the surface, know what does the original want to express. If a translator does only know surface meaning of the original and translate it literally, his translation would be correspondingly. After target language reader read his translation, they would be confuse and have different feeling between the original and the translation or even have erroneous comprehension.
Translation is different from reading. When we reading, it no matter how much we understand or can be understand or have erroneous comprehension. Because level of the readers is limited. Reading is only a feeling of himself. But translation affects others. Instead of the original author, translation is a man retell source language massage to target language. So translators should comprehened the source language message deeply and thoroughly, then retell the meaning of the source language correctly and close to the source language message. If a translator comprehened the source language just a little nmbiguiously,translation would be different from the source language message. Therefore, comprehension is very important. If translators had false comprehension to the source language message, his translation could be far from the original. This will lead his translation to be unqualified.
At last, enhance acceptability of translation. From above we know that translation should accord with the expressive way of target language, so that it can be easily accepted by target language readers. Actually, it is not difficult to retain the style of the original. But it is difficult to translate the original accord with target language expressive way. A translator who has abandant experience can surmount obstacle between two language. An excellent translator must have done his best effort on his translation. This is translators' duty. An excellent translator has practised a lot on how to handle the problems in translation. Excellent translation are acceptable.
From all above, literal translation is a basic skill of translation. It keeps the form of source language, including construction of sentences, mataphor. Sometimes it should do some neccessary change to the original, make the translation accord with the expressive way of target language. So make the translation acceptable. A translation which translated literally is close to the original. But literal translation is not omnipotent. Some sentences should not translate literally, because these sentences contained idioms which are different in source language and target language. Translators should have extensive knowledge. Comprehened source language message correctly and thoroughly, enhance acceptability of translation. If translators want to use literal translation properly and skillfully, they must comprehened all above, and have some practice. After all, practise is the most important aspect intranslation.
3.1 If it was some trouble to understand a sentence in using literal translation, use free translation.
In which suituation the translators can not use literal translation? When some sentences that the way of expressive between source language and target language are different, should not use literal translation. If use literal translation, target language readers would have some trouble to understand, then make the translation unacceptable. In these suituation, free translation should in use. Free translation expresses the general idea of the original according to the meaning of the original, and does not pay attention to the details. But translation should be fluent and natural.
There are two examples:⑥
11) I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave her ( my wife ) my old age.
Literal translation: 我把青春献给海洋,我回家的时候便把老年给了我的妻子.
Free translation: 我把青春献给海洋,等我回到家里见到妻子的时候,已经是白发苍苍了.
12) Maybe Kino has cut off his own head and destroyed himself.
Literal translation: 也许Kino会割掉自己的脑袋,把自己毁了.
Free translation: 也许Kino走了绝路,自己毁了自己.
From the example 12), the original "cut off his head" means have done something badly, felt into predicament. If a translator translated the original literally, his translating would make target language readers confused, after reading, target language readers would feel unacceptable. So translators should use free translation in the example 11) and 12). Because free translation can tell the ture meaning to target language readers.
Some sentences, if translate literally are also fluent and natural that it seems these sentences should translate literally. But translated these sentences literally could not express the deep meaning of the original. If we use freetranslation,effect would be better than literal translation. Free translation could express the deep meaning of the original sentences.
For example: ⑦
13) Cast pearls before swine.
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪面前.
Free translation: 对牛弹琴.
14) Barbara was born with a silver spoon in her mouth.
Literal translation: Barbara嘴里叼着银调羹出生的.
Free translation: Barbara出生最富贵人家.
Example 13) and 14) are metaphor, have deep moral. If translated literally, translations are fluent and natural, but it could not express the deep meaning of the oroginal, it is unadvisable.
There is another suituation which should use free translation: a sentense that use idioms.
For example:⑧
15) Something unexpected may happen ang time.
Free translation: 天有不测风云.
Literal translation: 一些没有预料到的事会随时发生.
In English, this sentence is very common. But if translated it literally into Chinese, it did not accord with the habit of expressive. On the contrarary, it would be unitelligible and would not achive the effect of the original. It would make target language readers inappreciatable. But in the example 15), free translation used a Chinese idioms, after reading target language readers would comprehened and have nice feeling. So free translation is a good choice when literal translation could not be used.
3.2 Don not add personal emotion to the original works.
Translation is a brige between source language and target language. Task of translation is to express the meaning and manifestation of the source language message by target language. The translation should give target language readers almost the same feeling as source language readers. If target language readers and source language readers had almost the same feeling after reading the translation, it was successful. If target language readers and source language readers had different feeling after reading the translation, it showed the translation was unqualified. From the angle of translation, actually, the feeling of readers can judge a translation. So the feeling of readers is the standard of translation.
Tough free translation gives some leeways to translators. Translators should comprehened the original thoroughly, and use the leeways correctly. Some translators usually use the leeways incorrectly. They often add their personal emotion to the original works. So translation was subjunctive and different as the original. It was unqualified translation. Because if translators added their personal emotion to the original works that the meaning of the original message had been changed by translators. After reading, target language readers might have different feeling between translation and the original. Those translations which added translator's own emotion were not according with the standard of translation. Translation should avoid to add personal emotion to the original works.
3.3 Free translation skill needs extensive knowledge and culture of both source language and target language.
Free translation gives translators some leeways. Translators should use then correctly. Not only should translators comprehened the meaning of the original message, but also they should be provided with extensive knowledge and culture of both source language and target language. Especially, on literature works, translators should be provided with literature training, and they also should know extensive literature knowledge. A translator who wanted to translate a literature composition should do his effort to accumulate something about history, geography, custom, natural style and features, tranditional culture and so on about the literature composition. In additional, translators should know the background of age and the author, style of the anthor. More extensive knowledge the translators have, more thoroughly he can comprehend the meaning of the original.
Free translation is a skill in translation. Translators should first comprehend the original thoroughly, then translate it correctly by target language, and acceptablely comprehend the original thoroughly is on the basis of extensive knowledge and excellent literature training. Some successful translators, when they were translating they did the research on the original author at the same time. After translating, they became on expert to the author and his composition. This spirit is worthly to study.
Let's see some examples:⑨
16) When the going gets tough, the tough getsgoing.
Free translation: 沧海横流方显英雄本色.
The words"going" and "tough" have different meaning. The translator used a sentence in a Chinese poem to translate this sentence.
17) Faults are thick where love is thin.
Free translation: 一朝情义淡, 样样不顺眼.
18) You can fool all the people some of the time and some of the people all the time, but you cannot fool all the people all the time.
Free translation: 骗人一夕一事易,欺众一生一世难.
19) Out of the FULLNESS of the heart the mouth speaks.
Free translation: 盈于心则溢于言.
The example above are all free translation. Translators translated them not only smoothly and fluently, but also acceptable and accordingly with Chinese culture. In addition, translators should know extensive idioms about both source language and target language. Different countries have different idioms. So in translation, some idioms are unable to translate literally. Translators should change the original form into another form which is easy to be accepted by target language readers. Thereby, convey the purpose of the original wanted to express.
For example: ⑩
20) When in Rome, do as the Romes do.
Free translation: 入乡随俗.
21) A cat on hot bricks.
Free translation: 热锅上的蚂蚁.
22) To expect one's son to become an outstanding personage.
Free translation: 望子成龙.
23) The dog that will feech a bone will carry a bone.
Free translation: 以你说别人坏话的人,也会说你的坏话.
Free translation does not strachy the form of the original. If translators want to use free translation proficiently. You'd better grasp extensive knowledge and culture of both source language and target language.
If using literal translation and free translation proper, you will succeed in translating a composition. The mostimportant in translation is the way in which how to dear with the complex problems of equivalence between the source and target articles. But complete identity of message is important, even use literal translation on the designative level of imformative function one can only aim at the closet approrimotion and in general it is posible to obtain a functionally satisfactory correspondace.
Literal translation is a good choice to translate lively and closely, as the original. It retains the idea, style and rhetoric of the original. Translators should grasp it. Literal translation is not word-for-word translation. Sometimes, translators should do some change in translation so that they can make the translation more acceptable. Word-for-word translation is unqualified. Not all sentences can translate literally. Some sentences, if used literal translation would not be according with the culture of target language. Especially for some idioms. Translators should have extensive knowledge, comprehend the original thoroughly. Especially in translating some proffessional materials.
Free translation is a skill. It need not pay more attention to the form of the original and the details. But free translation should accord with target language culture and customs. Then target language readers can accept translation easily. Though free tranlation gives leeways to translators, they should not add personal emotion to the original works. Because if translators added their own emotion to the translation, target language readers and source language readers would have different feeling. So the translation is unqualified. Free translation also needs extensive knowledge and culture of both source language and target language. Translators should be proviede with literature training. Especially knowing some idioms in both target language and source language is very important.
Literal translation and free translation are two different way in translation. An excellent translation includs this two kinds of translation. An excellent translator could use these two kinds of way properly and proficiently. No translators can use literal translation and free translation proficiently at beginning. All successful translators have practised lots. When they were translating, they accumulated experience and knowledge. After they have translated some composition, they accumulate extensive knowledge. So translators needs practise. And both content and style are insparaby linked in any text, and success in translation means dealing creatively with both of these aspect of communication.
① P91 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
② P92 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
③ P88 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
④ P88 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
⑤ P102 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
⑥ P92 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
⑦ P95 Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press.
⑧ From:http://www.si-china.net/schools/maoya.htm
⑨ From:http://www.si-china.net/schools/maoya.htm
⑩ From:http://www.si-china.net/schools/maoya.htm
ABSTRACT
This aretical is about literal translation and free translation and how to use literal translation and free translation properly. literal translation is a good choice to use, it keeps the original message form. But literal translation is not word-for-word translation. Some sentences should not translate literally. Because these sentences contain some idioms or not according with the custom of target language. Then, translaors should use free translation. Free translation is a translation skill which is active. But free translation can not add personal emotion to the original works. Translation must be acceptable which use free translation. And free translation skill needs extensive knowledge and culture of both source language and target language. If a translator wants to use literal translation and free translation proficiently, practise is the most important.
Fanzhongyan 1994 Foreign Language Teaching And Researching Press
1985 Shanghai Translation Press
Nida,Eugene A. 1991 Translation:Possible and Impossible
Elliott,Marion & Peter Strutt. , William Collins Sons and Co.Ltd.,1984
Zhuguangqian
Charlotte Bronte
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肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
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俄语属于斯拉夫语族的东斯拉夫语支。主要在俄罗斯和前苏联的其它成员国中使用,在华沙条约的成员国里曾经被学校广泛作为第一外语教学。在苏联时期,俄语在其加盟共和国中被大大的强调。虽然很多前苏联的国家现在开始强调当地语言的重要性,但是俄语仍然是这些地区最广泛使用的语言,并且也是这些国家进行交流时使用的语言。挪威俄语是俄语和挪威语的混合语。是俄罗斯的唯一官方语言,哈萨克斯坦 、 白俄罗斯 、 吉尔吉斯斯坦官方语言之一。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的语言教育论文范文:俄语语言教学与文化导入。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
摘 要:语言是文化的一部分,并对文化起着重要作用。有些社会学家认为,语言是文化的基石——没有语言,就没有文化;从另一个方面看,语言又受文化的影响,反映文化。可以说,语言反映一个民族的特征,它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景,而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。语言与文化互相影响,互相作用;理解语言必须了解文化,理解文化必须了解语言。
在俄语教学中常常会遇到如下情况:有些既没有生僻词、也没有复杂语法结构的听力或阅读理解材料,学生常听不懂或是不理解,此原因大多是遇到了原文中所涉及的文化背景知识,而学习者却不了解背景知识。其实,看似较为容易的听力或阅读理解材料,却是一项复杂的语言与思维相互作用的过程。理解准确与否在很大程度上取决于语言知识及文化背景知识的掌握程度。例如,据说,清朝“洋务运动一的代表人物李鸿章到美国访问时,主人称赞其妻很漂亮,李鸿章客气地回答:“哪里,哪里”。美国人不知道这是中国人谦虚的表现,以为要其指出具体哪里漂亮,于是尴尬地说:“全身”。 这就是文化差异。中国是一个礼仪之邦,谦虚在中国认为是一种美德,是有教养的表现。是中国文化特色的礼貌表现,中国人听到赞美之词时,往往是先否定对方的赞扬,然后再客气一番,以示自谦。
这个事例非常形象直观地反映出了语言和文化的相辅相成。由此可见:“语言的存在不能脱离文化,不能脱离社会继承决定了我们生活的实质”(著名语言学家萨丕尔),因此俄语教学必须重视文化差异并循序渐进导入教学中。我们不仅要教授学生掌握扎实的语言基本知识和技能,还要使学生了解俄罗斯国家的历史和文化,从而使学习者能够正确地理解和使用语言,达到俄语教学的目的。前苏联学者维列夏金(E.M.ВЕРЩАгин)和科斯托马罗夫(В.Г.КОСТОМАОВ)创建的俄语语言国情学(Лингвострановедение)二十年多年来为我国的俄语教学增添了新的活力和内容,它打破了传统的单一式的纯语言教学模式,融语言与文化为一体,把语言国情知识即文化背景知识列入外语教学的重要环节,为继语音、词汇、语法、修辞后的第五方面,这五方面相互作用,相互关连,共同构建一个完整的教学体系。
众所周知,语言承载着丰富的文化内涵。语言进入交际中,就存在对文化内涵的理解和表达的问题。理解和表达是跨文化交际关键问题。语言和文化密切相关,同样,俄语教学也不能脱离俄罗斯国家的文化和历史背道而驰。俄语教学中,把语言与文化相融合,这已经成为俄语教学工作者所普遍认同的一个原则:俄语教学不是只解决词形变化问题,不能只学会按词类释义掌握词汇,不是停留在掌握俄语句子结构上,它需要扩展出语言本身的范围,深入到语言以外的现实生活中去,这样学生才完全地掌握语言、运用语言到实践中,达到交际目的,这个原则是建立在七十年代诞生于前苏联的一门新兴学科一语言国情学的基础之上的,前苏联学者Е.М.Bерещагин和В.Г.КОСТОМАРОВ在《语言与文化》 即《Язык и культура》书中指出:“语言国情学是对外俄语教学的一个方面,它通过语言的载蓄功能(кумулятивная функЦия),向教学对象介绍苏联当代生活典型形象以保障教学的实际性。完成语言教学任务,提高学生文化素养,进行思想教育,其教学方法具有语言教学的基本功能,即在传授语言的过程中用俄语讲解国情。同时语言又反映着使用该语言的民族的文化。由此可见,语言又是文化的载体,这就是语言的载蓄功能。俄语语言教学的目的是培养学生的俄语交际应用能力,而交际的过程始终伴随着文化的交流,语言背景知识是交际获取的基础。
2.1阶段渐进原则
任何教学活动都是循序渐进的过程,教学与文化也是如此。初期阶段的文化导入应主要介绍在日常生活交际方面俄汉文化的差异,以及在语言形式和运用中的具体表现,从而使学生掌握日常生活中俄语语言的交际能力。第二阶段的主要内容是介绍由于文化差异所引起的俄汉词语、成语含义及运用方面的差异,使学生熟悉俄汉语义的差别并深入理解俄语表达法所涉及的文化内涵,从而助力学生恰当地运用这些词汇进行语言交际。
2.2 实用实践原则
实用实践原则所导人的文化内容与学生所学的语言内容紧密相连,同时考虑到学生今后所从事的职业性质等因素。一方面使学生认知语言与文化的关系不抽象空洞;另一方面文化教学紧密结合语言交际实践,可以激发学生学习语言和文化的兴趣,产生良好的效果。
2.3 适合时代原则
所谓适合时代,主要指在教学内容、方法上的适度。教学内容的适度除了以上提到的实用性和阶段性原则外,还应考虑到该文化目的代表性问题,属于主流时代文化性,有广泛代表性的内容。因为文化的内容非常丰富,也极其复杂。同时还应处理好文化内容的历时性和共时性之间的关系,重点应放在共时文化上,适当引入一些历时的内容,以利于学生了解某些文化习俗和传统的来龙去脉。教学方法上的适度,就是要正确协调好教师讲解和学生自学的关系。应鼓励学生进行大量的课外阅读和实践,与时俱进,增加文化知识积累。教师应成为课外文化学习的组织者和指导者。
2.4 系统规划原则
文化导入最大的问题就是缺乏系统性。教师在教授语言过程中,遇到一些文化现象便顺便一提,对文化教学中的内容和方法也无具体统一要求。因此在制定新的《大学俄语教学课程要求》时,是否应针对俄语教学的文化导入问题增加部分内容,明确文化导入的原则、内容、方法、途径以及要求达到的水平等。这样教师在俄语教学中的文化导入便有纲可依,从而避免文化导入过程中盲目和混乱现象。
3 俄语教学中文化导入的五种方法
3.1 注解法
这是目前所使用的大多数俄语教材所采用的方法。即将教学材料中容易引起学生理解上困难的词语或表达法在课后用专门篇幅加以注释。该方法的特点是灵活、简便、适用于各种语言材料各个阶段对某一语言现象的突出讲解,缺点是无系统性。比如在《新编大学俄语基础教程》第一册第十一课的课文注释(Пояснения к тексту)中,分别介绍了чёРнАя peчкa(黑溪)Летний сад(夏园)、крейсер《ABpopa》(“阿芙乐尔”号巡洋舰)和6eлые ночи(白夜)等文化内容,如果学习该课文之前对有关内容做完整的介绍,对教师讲解课文及学生理解课文都是大有帮助的。
3.2 融合法
融合法指的是将文化内容与语言材料结合在一起的教学方法。如果语言材料本身就是介绍前苏联或独联体文化习俗、词语典故、文学名著、历史事件等,那么教师在教学过程中的进一步讲解就很容易引起学生的兴趣,文化知识和语言的学习可以有潜移默化的效果。
3.3 实践法
实践法是指学生通过具体的语言实践,如听、说、读等学习和了解俄语国家的文化知识,包括看电影和教学录像以及阅读文学作品等:俄苏文学是世界文学史上一颗璀灿的明珠,对俄苏文学作品的阅读也是一种学习外国文化知识的重要方法,一个民族的文学作品是该民族文化的精华部分,是传统文化的积累。当然阅读原文的文学名著难度很大,研究者建议学生可以翻阅中文译文来补充这一部分的内容。
3.4 比较法
比较法是跨文化语言交际教学中的一个极为重要的手段。俄汉两个民族文化上异同,体现了文化共性,也存在文化个性。因此,在教学过程中,语言国情知识的传授必须立足于俄汉两个民族语言文化异同的对比。通过俄汉两种文化的对比,使学生的知识结构不只是停留在表面的认知层次上,而是向纵向方向发展。作为记录人类历史,表达人类生活的思想工具,每一种语言都有其深远的文化背景和文化内涵。比如,俄国人在交往过程中喜欢使用赞语(комплимент).说恭维话,如夸奖妇女的发型、衣着打扮等,对这些夸奖俄罗斯妇女通常会说: “Спасибо!” (谢谢!),而中国妇女就会非常客气地说“不漂亮”。再比如中国人打招呼时常说“您去哪儿?”(Куда вы идёте?”)而俄罗斯人会认为你干涉人家私事,很不礼貌。中国素有“礼仪之邦”之称,一贯提倡“笑迎天下客”、“微笑服务”,而俄罗斯人不习惯对陌生人展露笑容,他们不苟言笑并非不友好,而是受其传统的交际文化及历史的影响,认为微笑会分散注意力,工作时应该思想集中、态度严肃。在与亲朋好友交往时则绽放笑容。
3.5 历史引入法
通过介绍历史人物和历史事件可以拓宽学生的知识面,更好地理解句子。阅读俄语文章要有一定和语言知识,但阅读理解能力的高低不完全是语言水平的问题,文化背景知识必不可少。比如在纪念普希金(A.C.Пушкин)诞辰二百周年的日子里,向学生介绍俄国文学史上第一位举世瞩目的伟大作家的生平及其流芳百世的不朽名著《叶甫盖尼?奥涅金>(《Евгений Онегин》),并介绍对作家少年时代有影响的圣彼得堡附近的普希金城(Пушкино)即沙俄时期的皇村 (Царское село);并使学生了解作家辉煌灿烂而短暂的一生,学生们不但产生了浓厚的学习文化背景知识的热情,而且对俄语语言知识的学习也感兴趣,充分调动学生学习俄语的积极性。
综上所述,可以看到,要想提高学生综合运用语言的能力,除了语言能力、语言因素外,还有必要注意非语言因素。在俄语教学过程中,教师的任务除了是“语音专家和语言寄存器”之外,还应该是俄罗斯国家文化的“传播者”,充分利用这种文化因素,向学生讲解语言,并努力发掘其文化内涵。如果把语言和文化分离,“语言就只是一个空壳”。语音、语法、词汇这些纯语言形式提供的只是语言理解和语言使用的客体信息,剔除语言内的文化内容,离开了语言的文化背景,语言内在的信息难以生存,即使语言规范,也未必有传递信息的作用。因此说,语言学习很重要的一个方面是文化知识学习。俄语教学融入文化导入会使学习者事半功倍。
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汉语言文学作为一种自由的文学形式,从早期的文言文到现代的白话文,一直都是我国人民表达情感、抒发心志的文学载体,对人类的文明起到了很好的传承作用。下面是读文网小编为大家整理的汉语言文学方向论文,供大家参考。
一、汉语言文学专业课程教学的图像化生存策略
图像化生存是文化的视觉中心主义的发展。人类的图像化生存的动因:现代图像的迹象性导致人们以图像的方式证明自己的存在;人类的图像化生存的最重要方式是利用图像进行规训与展演。“媒介即信息”,读图时代带来阅读方式、审美体验和文化消费方式的巨大变迁,对传统依靠静态纸质媒介、经典化文本进行知识传授的文学类课程形成巨大的挑战。具体而言,应该在教学目标、教材建设、授课方式、评价机制等方面加以改革,以应对汹涌而至的读图时代和顺势而来的文本形式、图文关系和阅读方式的变革。
首先,教学目标发生了变革。在传统的“读文时代”,人们面对的是各种各样的语像,汉语言文学专业课程的一个重要目标在于帮助学生处理各种文字文本,即通过学习,学生能很好地阅读、理解和阐释各种文字文本。而在新的“读图时代”,人们要遭遇和面对各种各样的图像/图文构成的多中介复合文本——图文本。因此,汉语言文学专业课程的教学,就必须将帮助学生“阅读”、理解和阐释各种各样的图像/图文,缓解图像冲击的压力。面对挑战,必须强化处理图像与文字的能力,而非传统的阅读——“阅读文字”的能力,而是新的“阅读”——读图和观看能力,理解图像和解读复合文本的能力。由于时代变迁,对人才评价标准的全新看法,教学目的和任务也发生了重大变化。过去评价一个老师或学生的水平、素质,主要着眼于人的认知数量,也就是说这个人懂得越多,就是越有学问和水平。因此,人们常常用“才高八斗”、“学富五车”、“博闻强记”、“知识渊博”的话语来赞誉有学问的人。于是,教师就尽可能多地讲授知识,似乎只有这样学生才能接受得越多。其根本原因是,传统传播媒介信息携带量及普及度十分有限,对人器官的延伸有很大的局限性。而到了网络时代,媒介发生了重大转变。由传统的原子媒介向电子比特媒介跨越。比特无重量和体积,可通过网络瞬间传播。不同于传统媒介之处,它是人的神经器官的延伸。它的信息携带密度及数量,对原子媒介而言是一种跳跃性突破。因此,今天评价人才的标准,已不再依据他所拥有的信息量,而转向他对海量信息的搜索、扩展和处理的能力。现在,一张DVD光盘可以容纳一个中型图书馆藏书。只要连通网络,我们可以轻而易举查阅世界上所有电子化的各种信息。因此,专业课程的课堂教学,将着眼于训练和培养学生如何获取和处理信息,以及专业自我发展的特定技能。现代课程教学的目的和任务,可以表述为:展示新的思维方式和看问题的独特角度,提供学习方法,拓展学术视野,关注专业现实课题,引导学生进行独立思考。教师展示的独特思路和崭新观念,应该着眼于启迪学生的思维,激发学生的内在潜能。
其次,教材建设中应该改变现有教材以文字符合为中心,很少或者完全不重视图像符号的传统,编写图文本的汉语言文学专业教材,形成图-文同体、双重导向的新教材。特别注意,这里的图不仅仅是静止的、平面的图画、图片,还包括大量动态的图像、视频,因此,在此意义上的教材应该是双重文本,由纸质文本和多媒体文本(VCD、DVD,网络数据库等)组成。最近几年,由台湾大块文化股份有限出版的“经典3.0”系列在经典阅读方面做了新的尝试,将经典导读、故事绘图、原典选读放置一处,同时提供延伸的图书、音乐、影像在线浏览。这种尝试对于图文结合的教材建设是富有借鉴意义的。
再次,授课方式上,读文与读图并重。改变过去只读文,或者以文为主,以图为辅的授课模式,形成以图文并重的,图文互释的新模式。影视作品可以进入课堂,比如大量文学作品改编的影视作品,正好有益于双重文本的互动阐释。这既有利于提升影视作品的欣赏层次,摆脱大众趣味,也有利于为传统文学文本赋予新的生命力。新的课堂教学,必须用观察、参与、探索、实践、实验、反思等手段帮助学生主动建构知识的意义,让学生从被动接受者,从传统的意义灌输对象转变成建构意义的主体。同时,还要具有知识应用与迁移能力,能从既有知识中提升和创新。
最后,评价机制上,以灵活多样的评价方式为指导,重点检验学生把握、理解、运用符号的能力。改变过去以单纯检验对文字符号的把握、理解和运用为目标,而是检验对图-文符号二者及其互动的把握、理解和运用为目标。增强读图时代,学生运用图像符号的能力,减少图像拥堵带来的迷惑与焦虑,同时巩固对文字符号的把握和运用;当然,二者的互动阐释有利于图文两种符号的共同发展。
二、结语
未来,互联网、移动终端日益深入生活学习和工作的方方面面,“图像霸权”成为事实,如何面对随之而来的挑战?高校教育教学工作者必须用变化的眼光,开放和包容的心态,积极探索,改革教学方法和手段,迎接读图时代或视觉文化时代的挑战。
一、人才培养模式当代大学的根本任务就是人才培养
1996年的《中华人民共和国国民经济和社会发展“九五”计划和 2010 年远景目标纲要》中最早提及了“人才培养模式”,但没有明确其具体含义。到了1998年,教育部颁发的《关于深化教育改革,培养适应21世纪需要的高质量人才的意见》中,将人才培养模式概括为“学校为学生构建的知识、能力、素质结构,以及实现这种结构的方式,它从根本上规定了人才培养特征并集中地体现了教育思想和教育观念”。近年来,在高等教育体制改革与教学改革的进程中,“人才培养模式”不断被提及、论述,但对其理解可谓众说纷纭。一是广义说,认为人才培养既要设计和建构培养过程,也要管理培养过程,把“人才培养模式”理解为培养目标、培养方案、培养途径、培养方式、管理制度评价体系等多种要素的组合。二是狭义说,认为培养模式是为实现培养目标而采取的培养过程的构造样式和运行方式,此说法源于教育的基本问题———“培养什么样的人”和“怎么样培养人”。我们认为,人才培养模式是高等学校根据学校的办学定位、经济社会的发展需求及学生的发展需求,为学生设计的知识、能力和素质结构以及如何实现这种结构的方式。汉语言文学专业人才培养模式既具备人才培养模式的共性,也体现出其特殊性,汉语言文学专业人才培养模式要凸显教师教育的针对性,践行教师教育一体化的重大趋势。始于2011年的“卓越教师教育培养计划”,在培养模式上,要求实施学科专业理论培养与教师专业技能培养相叠加、院内培养与院外实践相嵌入的“三叠加嵌入”培养模式。在借鉴高师兄弟院校成功做法的基础上,结合教师教育改革,依托河南教育学院与郑东新区联合申报的“校-地协同创新”教师教育改革创新实验区建设经验,我们探索出“顶岗实习、置换研修”的汉语言文学专业人才培养模式。汉语言文学专业“顶岗实习、置换研修”人才培养模式,具体而言,指的是组织汉语言文学专业高年级的学生,在完成主要课程的学习之后,到中小学承担相应的教师职能,原任课教师置换到高师院校接受一段时间专业培训的实践教学模式。“顶岗实习、置换研修”是终生学习理念以及教师教育一体化在实践中的具体体现,能够有效地促进职前培养和职后培训的衔接,确保地方教育行政部门、中小学主动参与高师院校对未来教师的全面培养,切实提高师范生的教学技能,提升在职教师的理论素养。
二、人才培养目标
培养模式是为培养目标服务的,而培养目标在一定程度上制约着培养模式。培养目标是教育活动的出发点和归宿,决定着课程体系、教学内容、教学方法以及考核方式等。要改革传统汉语言文学专业人才培养模式,务必准确定位汉语言文学专业的培养目标。当下,如火如荼的语文新课改,对中小学语文教师提出了更加严峻的考验。新形势下的中小学语文教师,应具备相应的职业素养。首先,需要具备全面、扎实的文史哲知识与良好的传统文化修养,较强的听说读写能力,简言之,即具有较高的语文综合素养;其次,需要具备一定的语文教育学及教育、心理学素养,熟悉语文学习及语文教学规律;再次,需要具备较强的语文教学实践技能,擅长教学生学语文、悟语文,能够自觉遵守语文教师的职业道德规范。鉴于此,我们将高师汉语言文学专业人才培养目标定位为:培养具有坚定的政治方向,高尚的职业道德,适应基础教育改革和发展需要,具有现代教学思想和教育观念、扎实的专业知识、深厚的人文素养、系统的教育技术与方法,富有创新意识、创新精神和创新能力,从事中小学语文教育教学的应用型人才。
三、课程设置
课程是实现教育功能的载体,在一定程度上制约着受教育者的发展方向。就目前而言,汉语言文学专业课程结构设置不尽如人意,比如:师范性与学术性课程未能较好地融合,缺乏有特色的专业课程,教师教育类课程得到的重视还不够,职前培养与职后培训缺乏连贯性,实践课程薄弱等。进行课程改革,需要明确以下原则:一是以专业化为方向,注重学生教学能力的培养,让学生的教学技能非同一般,体现卓越教师所彰显的卓尔不群;二是以系统化为导向,把汉语言文学专业所开设的课程整合为一个有机系统,这就要压缩学科专业课、扩大公共基础课和教师教育课、增设选修课,提高课程的综合化程度、丰富课程的内容。课程的设置应源于培养目标,汉语言文学专业课程设置要紧紧围绕“中小学语文教师”专业素养的特殊性,进行课程资源和结构的合理配置。具体而言,在公共课模块,除开设传统的政治、英语、体育、计算机外,还要增设国防与军事教育、创新创业教育等。在教师教育方向课模块,除开设传统的教育学、心理学、普通话与汉字规范之外,还要开设现代教育技术、班级管理、学习心理学等课程。在专业基础课模块,除开设普通逻辑、基础写作、中外历史概论、儿童文学、文学概论之外,还要开设应用写作、中国学术思想史、文章学与语文教育等。在专业方向课模块,改变现行分学期分时代讲授文学作品选的做法,以古代文学史、现当代文学史、外国文学史为纲,结合文学史的讲解,研读赏析各阶段有代表性的文学著作,缩短授课时间,增强文学课程的连贯性;整合现代汉语、古代汉语、语言学概论三门语言类主干课程,开设古汉语基础、语言学概论、语用学、教师口语等课程;开设中国语文教育发展史、语文课程教学标准与教材研究、语文教学课件制作等。在专业选修课模块,开设文学作品鉴赏理论与实践、中国古代文化常识、影视文学、音乐美术鉴赏、基础教育专题讲座等。在实践模块,安排岗位见习、顶岗实习、毕业论文写作等。
四、实践能力培养
在传统培养模式的引领下,汉语言文学专业的学生掌握了较为扎实全面的专业理论知识、教育教学理论,但由于实践教学环节薄弱,教师基本功较差,作为一名中小学语文教师应知应会的职业技能欠缺,职业素养不尽如人意。根据《语文课程标准》相关要求,培养学生的实践能力,不能仅限于时间有限的教育实习,而应该贯穿于全程教学之中,着眼于学生写作能力、阅读能力、口语表达能力以及教学技能的全面协调发展。具体而言,写作能力包含基础文体写作(记叙文、说明文、议论文、抒情文等),新闻文体写作(新闻、消息、总结、报告等),文学文体写作(散文、诗歌、小说、童话、课本剧等)。阅读能力包含浏览、精读,能够提取信息、把握主旨、培养语感、陶冶情操等。口语表达能力,包含日常口语交际能力,教学语言组织运用能力和演讲、辩论、即兴发言能力等。教学技能,包含规范汉字书写能力、备课上课能力、班级管理能力等。各项能力的培养和训练要以相应课程为平台,贯穿于全程学习之中,以学生喜闻乐见的教学方法与手段,灵活多样的考核方式,激发学生的学习兴趣,全面提升学生的实践能力,养成良好的教师职业素养。传统的“师范教育”逐步被“教师教育”所取代,文字上的变化,彰显了教育发展观和发展方式的转变。在教师教育改革的号角下,“卓越教师计划”的实施、教师教育改革创新实验区的立项建设,为教师教育的发展提供了前所未有的机遇。拥有在校生数量众多的汉语言文学专业,唯有在相关文件精神的指导下,着眼于经济社会发展需求,立足专业自身状况,在“育人为本、实践取向、终身学习”理念的指引下,结合当下中小学语文教师的综合素养,确定人才培养目标,科学构建课程体系,改革教学方法与考核方式,才能培养出符合基础教育需求的应用型人才。
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市场营销是现代社会企业经营中必不可少的关键环节,企业要想获得利益,只有首先将产品推销出去,才能通过销售赢得利益,为企业的发展提供资金。下面是读文网小编为大家整理的市场营销专业方向的论文,供大家参考。
一、电力市场营销策略即电力企业在电力营销过程
1.良好形象企业形象与客户第一印象有着密切联系,也是吸引消费者的重要参考标准。对电力企业而言,为占领更多市场、培养更多客户,常通过产品展示、媒体宣传、社会调查等渠道树立稳定可靠的形象。
2.优质服务随着消费者消费意识的提升,对服务水平要求越来越高。在众多竞争对手中,为提高竞争力、拓展消费市场,电力企业除了实现正常供电,还应注重各方面服务的便捷性、全面性以及人性化。
3.引导需求电力系统结构庞大,而各地经济发展水平、用户用电时间等因素都不固定,以至于生活中供不应求或电力资源浪费现象时有发生。为缓解用电紧张,企业需落实国家政策,采取有效途径引导用户改善用能结构,实现合理消费。
4.拓展市场为提高竞争力,实现长久发展,电力企业应不断开拓市场,创造新的电力需求,以获得更大效益。
5.管理创新电力营销涉及诸多方面,在当前新形势下,需不断注入活力。往往会引进新技术新设备、创新制度,以达到降低成本的目的。
二、实例分析电力市场营销现状
1.实例
某大型电力企业建于1986年,在职职工共有1072人,企业主要负责周围8个县区的供电工作,覆盖面积达6840Km2。至2013年底,该企业共建有35KV以上的变电站127座,主变239台,总的变电容量达882万KVA。2013年该企业的年售电量为125亿KW•h,销售收入47.5亿元,其中工业生产和居民生活用电较多,分别占了总用电量的71%、16.2%。
2.SWOT分析电力市场营销现状
为客观准确地评价该企业的营销状况,采用SWOT的方法进行分析。其优势在于:用电客户有明显的增长潜力,且企业销售渠道较为完善,尤其是比重最大的工业客户,输配电网络形成了一套完整的系统;企业电力质量及产品质量有保证,完全符合规定,可满足所有客户的供电需求。随着人们环保意识的加强,高质量产品将成为一大竞争优势;生产管理比较完善,该企业在长期实践中积累了大量经验,在生产管理方面制定有完善的流程制度;优质服务,企业成立了专门的服务社区,时常开展各种优质服务活动,并主动接受社会各界的监督,获得了良好的信誉和形象。
其不足之处主要体现在:缺乏市场营销观念,部分基层人员在内外影响因素的研究以及市场调查等方面做的不到位;营销战略不健全,企业高层营销管理人员较少,且基层营销人才匮乏;对市场分析不够深入,当前市场颇为复杂,且有着诸多不确定因素,企业必须做进一步分析,不断调整战略,找准定位;对电力商品认识不足,将其简单地认为是缴纳电费等,没有意识到电力商品还包括潜在产品、附加产品、期望产品等属性。此外,该企业在未来发展中还可抓住很多机会,如电力需求在增长;居民“一户一表”的改造;智能电网的进一步建设等。
三、该企业电力营销策略的具体实施
1.做好基础工作
(1)加强市场调查市场在电力营销中发挥着决定性作用,营销战略必须依据市场现状及市场动向而定。该企业加大了市场调查力度,提前预测并做好了变化跟踪分析。对行业整体进行了全面了解,并有针对性地开展多项营销活动,为用户提供各种帮助,如设计合理的用电方式、分析用电效益等。
(2)实现营销的规范化、标准化管理遵守国家相关规定,牢牢掌握电力法,签订较为规范的合同,并明确划分双方的责任和义务,维护各方合法权益。对企业制度加以改进,形成一套完整可行的体系。同时采用流程化的管理模式,实现抄表、核算、收费等环节的全过程管理,对营销行为加以规范。
2.积极建设高素质的营销队伍
(1)营销负责人的确定为避免出现互相推诿责任的情况,需在营销部门设置专门的负责人。负责人责任重大,除了极强的业务能力,还应具有全面的文化知识和优秀的品格素质。领导需跟紧时代创新观念,并大力培养在法律、管理、计算机等方面都擅长的人才。
(2)营销人员的配置营销人员直接参与电力营销活动,其业务技能、责任心、工作态度、服务意识等直接关系到营销水平。所以应加强专业培训工作,或招聘、培养一批高素质、高技能的营销人员。可通过提高待遇的方式吸引更多人才,打造一支新型队伍,以应对市场变化。
(3)实行轮岗制度在企业内部优化营销人员结构,确保合理的人才流动,根据各自能力对岗位人员进行适当的调整。工作人员在一个岗位工作时间太久,易变得懒惰甚至不负责任,岗位轮换制则可有效改变这一状况。
3.营销体系再造首先应优化营销组织体制,以市场为中心,对各级营销组织体系及业务流程进行优化设计,完成由职能导向型到流程导向型的转变。同时把握市场变化规律,根据自身实际条件,建立起合理可行的组织体系,以提高营销效率和质量。其次要不断强化营销激励约束机制,如建立奖惩制度,落实责任,调动营销人员的主动性和积极性。加强服务激励和监督机制的建立,完善营销与服务工作评价体系。
四、结束语
为顺利实现电力市场销售目标,需结合市场变化及自身状况制定相应的营销策略。在当前新形势下,电力市场需求呈现出多元化,为此必须创新营销理念,努力提供优质服务,从而为企业带来更多效益。
一、引言
高职教育的人才培养目标是培养具有综合职业能力和全面素质的高素质技能型应用人才。专业课程体系是实现培养学生职业素质与职业能力的桥梁。目前,国内大部分高职院校都开设了市场营销专业。但很多院校,由于教学理念的差异或是教学条件的限制,致使该专业的课程设置差异也很大。我们在教学过程中,根据学生的普遍反映以及教师的教学经验,发现市场营销专业的课程设置还存在一些问题。因此,我们有必要在对市场营销专业的发展趋势以及学生职业能力与职业素质的要求,对高职院校市场营销专业课程体系的建设进行系统的分析和研究。
二、市场营销专业课程体系建设存在的主要问题
1.课程结构设置不合理。
目前,大多很多高职院校市场营销专业的课程体系存在课程结构相对单一,知识结构不健全,重理论、轻实践;重知识传授、轻能力培养。市场营销的专业特点要求毕业生必须具备观察市场能力、社交沟通能力、经营管理能力与创新创业能力才能满足企业和社会的需求,因此,课程结构的设置应该进一步完善,讲授理论的同时,加强学生的动手能力。
2.课程之间存在重复现象。
同一内容在两门课程中重复讲授,但由于课时的限制哪一门都讲不透,这种现象一方面使学生对知识的掌握停留于一知半解,另一方面还会因过多重复使学生产生厌倦感。这也是很多高职院校市场营销专业课程体系存在的问题。例如:《统计学》的课程内容主要是统计调查、统计整理与统计分析,《市场调查与预测》的课程内容是市场调研方案设计、调查问卷设计、调查方法的运用、市场调研资料的处理与预测。市场调查相关知识在不同课程中重复讲述,导致学生在学习这些课程时缺乏新鲜感,就会出现故意请假或旷课的行为。这样,一方面教师的大量重复劳动严重浪费了宝贵的教学时间,另一方面,学生又没有积极性投入到学习中,最终导致教师的教学缺乏激情,学生的学习缺乏动力。
3.专业教材没有体现教学特色。
目前一些高职院校市场营销专业还没有出版一套系统的、符合其实际需要的配套教材。目前授课使用的专业教材大多选用的是经贸类普通教材,这类教材虽然对市场营销专业基本知识具有较好地阐述,但往往和高职院校学生的具体情况需要具有一定差距。迫切需要具有可操作性、又有一定专业深度的专业方面的教材。
三、落实课程体系改革的主要措施
1.增加实践课程比例。
市场营销专业学生在工作中要具有很强的实际操作技能。所以,以培养实践技能为主,以培养应用技能为指导来设置课程,针对市场营销岗位特性加强实践教学。在课程设置上保证理论知识“必需、够用”的基础上加大实践课程的比例;教学活动中,要把理论学习与实践应用结合起来,增强实践教学环节,不断改革实践教学方式,可以从以前单一的技能实训周到课堂实训,课堂实训能够在理论学习的基础上开展,一方面巩固了学生的理论知识,另一方面将理论与实践相结合,能够更好的增强学生对实践的理解。培养学生的动手能力与创新能力。并且,在进行实践教学过程中,要遵循循序渐进的教学规律,以使实践操作的难度逐渐加大,学生的实践经验逐步积累。加大实训的同时,市场营销专业还应与企业进行合作,实施“学工交替”的校企合作人才培养模式。根据市场营销专业学生的培养需要,安排学生到校企合作企业进行顶岗实习,通过学校和合作企业的双向介入,把学生在校的理论学习、基本训练与在企业实际工作经历的学习有机结合起来,增强学生的实践动手能力,实现与营销岗位的“零距离”结合,最大限度地促进学生的综合职业能力发展。
2.课程内容综合化。
根据专业岗位所需要的职业能力,课程内容的取舍紧随现代市场营销理念与技术的发展趋势,主要体现为理论知识与实践知识的融合,课程整合和优化内容以具体的工作项目为载体,每一个项目都包括具体的能力要素与相关知识点。例如为培养学生熟练掌握市场调研与分析工作过程的主要操作技能,培养学生的市场调研和分析能力,我们将统计计学与市场调查与预测两门课程内容进行解构与优化整合,对课程的内容按照营销岗位的市场调研与分析的工作内容与流程进行了重构,基于市场调研与分析工作过程有效整合和序化课程内容体系,并加大整合以后的课程课时量。整合后的课程突出了以“过程”为主线的课程设计思路,分为具体的执行项目,包括市场调查方案的设计、市场调查、资料整理、调查分析与预测五个项目,培养高职院校市场营销专业学生的调研与分析能力。
3.开发“理实一体化”教材。
教材是教学内容和课程体系改革的集中体现,也是课程建设的重点。高职院校市场营销专业应该根据本校的教学模式以及教学特点,开发具有一定理论深度并且实践操作性强的教材。例如《市场营销策划》教材可以进行编写项目化课程教材,确定以能力培养为导向,以小组合作学习为模式,以真实产品为项目载体确定主要能力项目,通过分析企业市场营销策划工作任务确定了四个项目,即广告策划书制作、公关活动策划书制作、促销策划书制作、整体营销策划书制作,每个能力项目整合知识、技能、态度,实现理论知识与实践训练的融合。这样的项目化课程教材更体现了“理实一体化”教学要求。
四、结语
总之,高职院校市场营销专业课程体系的建设应根据市场经济的发展变化趋势、职业技能岗位的实际要求以及学生的特点适时地进行调整和变化,以最大限度满足用人单位的需求、学生的需要,充分发挥高职院校在培养高素质技能型营销人才方面的主体作用。高职院校市场营销专业的课程体系建设也是一项复杂的系统工程,涉及教学的各个环节,是一项长期而艰巨的任务,需要一个循序渐进的过程,因此,需要我们在改革过程中不断加以调整、逐步完善,最终实现实现学生、学校、社会、用人单位四方共赢的良好局面。
市场营销专业方向的论相关
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