为您找到与不同文化中的非语言交流表现出极大的不同翻译相关的共200个结果:
英汉两种语言的表达方式、语言习惯的不同,决定了它们所表达的相同事物之间存在着明显的差异性。然而,由于语言之间的相通性、相融性,也决定了不同语言的相同事物之间又在某些方面存在着必然的共同性。英、汉姓名的异同就是其差异性与共同性的具体体现之一,而在其中所蕴涵的深远的文化底蕴是值得我们回味与咀嚼的。本文就英汉姓名的文化内涵及其翻译方法进行粗浅探讨。
姓名的翻译要遵循两个原则:“名从主人原则”和“约定俗成原则”。“名从主人原则”是指在翻译姓名时,要以该姓名所在国语言的发音为准,而不管该姓名是直接从原文译出的,还是从其他文字转译的。换言之,就是译哪个国家的姓名就要以哪个国家的音为准。如Skolovski“斯克沃夫斯基”(波兰语发音),而不译作“斯科路夫斯基”(英语发音)。“约定俗成原则”是指有些姓名在长期的翻译实践中,已经有了固定的译法,就应该继续使用下去,即使有的不够妥帖,甚至错了,但因多年来已为人们所公认和熟悉,这样的译名也该继续沿用,无须另定译名。如英国著名作家George Bernard Shaw正确的汉译名应是“乔治·伯纳·萧”,但过去该作家的名字一直被译作“萧伯纳”,变成了一个典型的汉名,我们也只有错误地沿袭下去了。
浏览量:2
下载量:0
时间:
汉语字母词的出现丰富了现代汉语语言词汇系统,便于中西跨文化交际,但另一方面字母词的出现也是语言文化帝国主义在现代汉语中的表现,它破坏了现代汉语文字系统的纯洁性。本文探讨现代汉语字母词现象,并指出现代汉语字母词现象出现的必然性。
在跨文化交际的过渡阶段,跨文化与跨语言交际已经发展到一定的程度,为了克服在跨文化交际起步阶段用汉字单纯音译外来语词的缺陷,人们用汉字音意兼译外来语词。如把Beatles译成“披头士”会让人联想起乐手们演奏乐曲时长发飘散的潇洒形象;把coca-cola译成“可口可乐”会让人向往这种饮料的美昧,可口可乐之所以行销中国,其原因也在于此;把TOEFL译成“托福”,把意欲留学美国的中国学子的祈福心态描绘得活灵活现。其它经典的音意兼译佳作还有shampoo(香波),Benz(奔驰),Canon(佳能),talking show(脱口秀),Sumicidin(速灭杀丁),Broadway(百老汇)等等。
浏览量:2
下载量:0
时间:
语言基本上是一种文化和社会产品,要理解它就应该从文化和社会的角度出发。英汉两种语言之间的文化差异给其在语义层面上的转换带来了巨大的障碍,其差异首先表现为价值观念的不同。汉文化是一元文化,强调“社团价值论”;英文化是多元文化,崇尚“个人价值至上论”。除了价值观念差异之外,英汉文化差异还与两个民族所处的地理环境与社会环境、气候条件和风俗习惯等息息相关。
英汉民族由习俗引起的文化差异在一些与动物有关的词汇短语上体现得非常明显。英国人喜欢马,养马、骑马、赛马成为其风俗,英国文化就属于典型的的“马文化”,所以英语中有关马的说法极其丰富,诸如talk horse(吹牛)、 get on one’s high horse(趾高气扬)、horse and horse(并驾齐驱)等等。然而中国是传统的农业国,世代的牛耕生活使汉语囤积了大量的“牛文化”。牛是“吃苦耐劳,勤奋踏实”的象征,“俯首甘为孺子牛”就是体现的这种情结。相反在英语中却用马来代替,汉语中的“老黄牛”翻译成英语也就成了“a willing horse”。
不光如此,英汉语言中的一些表示颜色的词汇也沉淀了不同民情的文化。“红色”在汉语中含有极强的褒义色彩,“大红大紫”显示的是成功和富贵、喜庆和吉祥。与此相反, “red”却常常让西方人想起流血、战争、恐怖、愤怒和危险,含有较强的贬义。
伴随着二十世纪六十年代以来西方翻译的科学理论化进程,我国自八十年代后期,翻译研究呈现出突飞猛进的发展势头。与此同时,随着经济与文化等各方面全球化的影响,无论是翻译理论研究还是翻译实践都展现出一派蓬勃发展的面貌。
在我国,翻译的对象领域被人为的划分为“非文学”的和“文学”的。“非文学”的主要是指一般的实用性文体,如政治、经济、科技、金融、商贸、旅游、体育等,其中最主要的要数“科技翻译”;“文学翻译”则是与科技翻译并行的翻译的门类和方法论。随之也便产生了“非文学”研究和“文学”研究。“非文学”翻译被认为是一种技术性的活动,在翻译活动中长期处于优势地位,与此同时,我们不能否认,文学翻译研究在翻译研究这一领域中占了主导地位,一直是人们关注的焦点。
20世纪80年代以来,受文化研究大潮的影响,翻译的历史文化研究日益受到重视,中西翻译的语言和文化思维的差异表现得极为突出,基于对语境、语气、含蓄等的敏感度及广泛运用各种修辞手法等方面的关注,翻译的文化因素被更多地加以考虑。
语言不仅是人类思想感情表达与交流的工具,而且是文化的组成部分,是文化的载体。语言能真切地反映一个国家、一个民族的生态地域、政治经济、物质文化、宗教信仰、风俗习惯等。不同的语言决定了不同民族不同的思维方式、行为方式以及语言表达方式。然而语言的个性与共性是共存和并重的,洪堡特曾经说过:“比较语言研究是对语言差异的准确探索。”可以说,寻找差异的目的是达到统一,其中必须特别关注的,则是语言的音形、词句、文体等形式中所内涵的精神文化实质。
翻译的实质是将一种语言转换成另一种语言,其目的在于把原语的全部信息输入译语,同时取得最大限度的等值效果。英汉两种语言分属于印欧语系和汉藏语系,不同的语系特点,决定了各自的构词法和词义表达差异很大,要想确切地表达原作内容,在翻译过程中就要应用各种技巧。
有时为了使译文更加符合汉语的表达习惯和规律,在忠实于原文的前提下,必须选词、增词、省略、把词类适当地加以转换,才能使译文通顺自然。当然翻译并不是纯语言本体的转换,它与社会文化等有着各种关系。每一个民族都有自己的社会文化特色,文化是使人们凝聚为一个共同整体的一系列共享的意义、信仰和价值,有其特定的时空范围,因此,一些话语的正说与反说、句型和习语等在翻译时也要考虑到它们各自的特点。
在中国文化和历史中,有许多辉煌成就令外国学者向往,他们认为中华文化博大精深、多姿多彩,其历史源远流长,因此形成了构思方式和语言组织上的重视意合和悟性,区别于西方思维差异上的重形合和理性。汉语的意合无须借助词汇语法的衔接手段,仅靠词语与句子内涵意义的逻辑关系或借助语境、语义、语用的因素,便能构成连贯的语篇,这一特点集中体现在古汉语文学作品中;而英语在语言形式上把词语句子结合成语篇整体时则少不了词汇语法的显性衔接。
德国思想领袖哈贝马斯倡导的“交往行动理论”以理解与沟通为现代社会最高目标,认为翻译研究应该成为人类交往实践的一项基本训练,从他人的角度出发,建立起主客体间的有效联系。这对不同文化背景下的交往甚至是相同背景下的交往都是必要的,这样可以改变现实生活中单向的思维模式,建立一种新的主客体认识模式。
中国人的传统思维讲究天人合一、人法自然、万物皆备于我,所以主体参与意识很强,在语言表达上表现为多以“人”作主语。西方人由于理性的分析而偏重于主客分离和区别,所以有时以“人”这个主体为主语,有时以客体为主语,视情况需要而定,但更多的是抱着客观审视的态度,以事物为主语并进行客观、冷静的剖析和描述,这就导致了英汉语篇主语、主位或是重心上的差异。
从根本上讲,这是中西方各自重综合与重分析思维习惯的表现。中国人喜欢螺旋式的展开方式,先宣称主题之重要,继而进行反复的论述和强调,最后回归到主题;西方人喜欢直线形逻辑思维,就是先表达出中心意思,由此展开,或层层推演或逐项分列,后面的语句由前面的语句自然引出。在一句含有时间、地点、事件的通知性的话语中,中国人的习惯表达是“我们将在什么时间什么地点做什么事情”,西方人的表达是“要进行的事件+地点+时间”。
例如,中国人习惯上说:我们明天早上去看姑妈,7∶00在院子门口集合。西方人的表达是:We will meet at the courtyard gate at 7 O’clock tomorrow morning in order to visit our aunt.
翻译是传译两种相异的语言与文字,总需要将译者与被译者两方面的语言文字做一番深刻的研究,看中文与外文究竟有哪些相异之处。这些相异之处有文法上的、修辞上的、习惯上的和表现手法上的。
如:由于英语重句子的建构,英语句型多,尤其长句多,西方人习惯于使用“叠床架屋”式结构的长句子,在进行翻译时,都要关照到。
在某种意义上说,翻译活动中准确和流利的表达就是在理解原文的基础上,通过深入的逻辑分析和推理,不断冲破原文词义或句法结构的强制范畴,把原文精髓用规范、通顺的译文语言全息再现出来。由于这样的译文不是原文的机械复制品,它往往需要创造性劳动,亦即语言艺术。而表达的艺术主要体现在理解翻译法以及对于原文用词、句法结构、叙述顺序等问题的恰到好处的处理上。由“直译”与“意译”引发出“异化”和“归化”,在翻译实践中都不能不采用。没有哪一种译文是完全异化或完全归化的,在翻译过程中若能使二者相得益彰,那么就会收到意想不到的效果。
西方美学有着悠久的历史和许多优良的学术传统,尤其是近几十年来它的飞跃发展,对译学影响越来越大。在进行文学翻译时,不能忽略作品的比较美学价值,不拘泥于表层结构和形态,不注重译作语言质量的高下。现代翻译需要我们对译品所蕴含的代表不同文化系统的审美特征,乃至于对不同国家和民族所持有的不同的审美理论和思维方式,做出美学价值上的判断,以探索其审美本质和规律。
比较文学的翻译研究不能局限于某些语言现象的理解与表达,也不参与评论其优劣,而是把翻译文学作品作为既成事实加以接受,不仅要对其进行一般意义上的价值判断,还要在此基础上展开对文学交流、影响、接受、传播等问题的考察与分析。
研究文学翻译,研究翻译理论,可以拓展新的角度、新的方法,不再单纯评价译品的优劣高下,而是将各类译品作为审美对象,从美学角度进行鉴赏、品味、对比、分析,使文学作品及其译品所蕴含的美学因素及其价值得到淋漓尽致的揭示,使读者在研读文学翻译作品的同时,充分领略原作与译作的审美价值。
英汉互译实践与技巧翻译是一门实践性极强的学问,需要长期下苦功夫才能真正学到手。译者的翻译能力的形成不能单靠学习理论知识、强化技巧训练,而是需要扎扎实实的双语功底及大量的翻译实践。
无论什么翻译,都不可避免地带有交流的目的。在国际文化交流日益繁荣,在中国与国际各领域接轨日益加速的时代,为使翻译学得以更好的发展,在注意到中西语言文化思维差异性的同时,必须打破翻译研究的地域、学科、流派的限制,形成跨学科综合、多元互补的研究格局,在译学领域加强交流,跨越不同的传统与体系,进行中西译论体系间的双向互补、借鉴和相互渗透,以达到中西译学的交融与共生。
浏览量:3
下载量:0
时间:
摘要:无论在书籍里,还是在人们口头的语言表达里,委婉语总
委婉语是一种用曲折委婉的方式表达说话者思想的特殊语言表达方式。其“最重要的特征就在于运用比较抽象、模棱两可的概念或比喻的、褒义的手法,使谈话的双方能够采用一种比较间接的方式来谈论不宜直说的事,而且不必为谈论这些事感到内疚”。
一、委婉语的民族文化性
语言是文化的载体,是反映民族文提供化的一面镜子。英、汉委婉语自然也会折射出两个民族不同的社会生活和文化价值观念。在英、汉语中最为常见的委婉语总是和人的生、老、病、死等相关,下面就此类委婉语的文化性进行分析探讨。
人会变老是自然规律,但在不同的文化背景下,人们对 “老”这个词会有不同的心理反应。在中国 “老”是智慧和经验的象征,如 “老骥伏枥”、“老马识途”等。对年长者,我们称呼时也往往冠以“老”字,如:“老寿星”、“老先生” 等。这类称呼中的 “老” 字,其语用功能主要是体现对长者的尊重,“年老”之意被淡化。但在英美人中“老”意味着“不能再为社会做贡献”、“不中用了” ,所以 “old” 是忌用词,要用elderly或senior来代替。
“死” 字几乎在所有语言中都是避讳语,英汉语中死的委婉语,各有特色,反映了不同民族的不同宗教信仰与文化。例如中国佛教把“死”婉称为“入寂”、“圆寂” ;道家却称之为“仙去”、“仙逝”等。老者死亡称为 “寿终”、“谢世”;少年死亡称为 “夭折”;中年死亡称为“早逝”等等。由此可以看出,从死者的社会地位到年龄、性别,生者与死者的关系,生者对死者的态度等无一不体现在所使用的委婉词语中。
英语中的to go west ,to be taken to paradise , to be asleep in theArms of God等习语均出自圣经。__认为,在最后的审判日人人都要把记载自己在世上所作所为的账本交给上帝加以审判。上述关于“死”的英语习语,充分体现了西方人的信仰观念。
二、委婉语的翻译对策
由于汉、英委婉语从属于不同文化背景下的民族语言,在翻译过程中如何处理二者之间的文化差异成为译者的棘手问题。作者认为,译者应在 “和而不同” 的原则下,不拘一法,灵活处理。人们常用的翻译方法有以下几种。
(一)直译法
直译就是指在译文条件许可时,在译文中既保持原文的内容,又保持原文的形式,特别是保持原文的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩等。汉、英虽属两个不同的语言系统,但二者之间仍有某些共同属性。汉英委婉语互译时,在能够确切表达原义和不违反译文规范的前提下,直译应是我们首选的翻译方法。请看以下例句:
1.The old man lay taking his rest after a life of biter hardship.译文:这位老人含辛茹苦了一辈子,现在安息了。英语“take one’s rest” 是“die”的委婉语,译文用 “安息”表达“死亡”恰好对应。
2.瘦死的骆驼比马大。译文:As tarving camel is bigger than a horse.翻译委婉语,采用直译法既能比较完整地保持原文的比喻和语言特色,又能保持形式的统一。
(二)意译法
对译语读者来说,如果直译模糊或难以理解,我们可以采纳意译的方法。意译法是指译者在受到译语文化差异的局限时,不得不舍弃原文的字面意义,以求译文与原语的内容相符和主要语言功能相似的方法。由于汉英语言文化背景不同,一些委婉语如果直译可能会造成读者的费解或误解,这时,我们可以忽略委婉语的表面意思而直接翻译其隐含意义。例如:An old white pimp named Tony Roland who was known tohandle the best looking working girls in NewYork.该句中的 “working girls”的本义是“工作妇女或劳动女性”。后来,那些靠卖笑的烟花女子将自己美称为“工作一族” ,言下之意是她们也是靠劳动来生活的。如果这里将其直译为 “工作妇女或劳动女性” 就会使人产生误解。有鉴于此 ,这里采用意译法将其翻译为“窑姐”,既忠实原文 ,又明白晓畅。
(三)变通超越法
以上三种翻译方法都是以委婉语译委婉语,而变通超越法是对于那些没有对应词语的委婉语,而采取的一种变通方法。不一定是以委婉语译委婉语。这种翻译方法往往舍弃了委婉语的文化特性,用普通概念词表达真实意义。例如:The boy’s laziness all summer go to his father’s goat .那男孩整个夏天都很懒,这使他父亲很生气。(《圣经?旧约》说上帝命撒旦去烧Job的羊群以激怒他,考验他对上帝的忠诚与忍耐。Got one’sgoat 意为“使某人生气”。)
三、结语
由于中西方社会习俗、历史发展、文化传统、价值观念等诸多方面存有明显差异,不同语言中的委婉语其语用功能不尽相同。 在英汉委婉语翻译中,译者应始终坚持从文化角度去思维,准确把握委婉语的语用功能意义,结合语境“对症下药”,将委婉语所蕴含的文化内涵忠实无误地传达给读者,从而使跨文化交际得以顺利进行。
参考文献:
[1]彭增安.语用? 修辞? 文化[M].上海:学林出版社,1998.
[2]姜风华.从委婉语看中西文化差异[J ].聊城大学学报(社会科学版)2006
[3]胡文仲.文化与交际[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1994
浏览量:2
下载量:0
时间:
浏览量:2
下载量:0
时间:
浏览量:2
下载量:0
时间:
认知语言学研究的重点之一是认知活动和过程。文化翻译是再创造的过程,是译者对原著的认知活动。从认知过程来看,认知语言学关注创造性以及体验性,这一理论认为,认知过程不同,会产生不同的翻译结果。同时,翻译与文化密切相关,离开文化背景的翻译很难取得成功。因此在翻译教学中要切实加强文化意识培养,充分认识到认知语言学对文化翻译教学的影响。
认知语言学是对大脑中相关语言机制进行研究的学科。认知语言学形成于20世纪70年代末,在80年代到90年获得了较快的发展,已经变成为当前新兴的主流语言学流派之一。通常情况下,学者们认为认知语言学的主要来源于以下三方面,这三派的相关学者也被看成是英语国家在认知语言学界的重要代表人物:(1)从转换生成学派中分裂出来的部分生成语义学家,例如Lakoff以及Langacker等人。(2)从功能或认知角度对语言进行研究的相关学者,例如Dirven以及Taylor等,这些学者认为利用较为普遍的认知方法对语言的功能以及形式进行研究,能够使得人们对语言表达中的认知机制进行更深入的研究。(3)对认知进行研究的相关人类学家、哲学家以及心理学家等,主要包括了Gibbs、Johnson以及Putnam等学者。国内知名学者王寅对国内外知名的认知语言学家相关理论进行了研究,给出了如下定义:认知语言学是一门新兴的跨领域学科,强调通过自我认知以及身体经验、借助知识结构以及认知方式等,合理地解释隐藏在语言事实中的认知规律。认知语言学认为,翻译是在现实体验的形势下,译者作为认知主体,凭借自身所参与的多种互动,在对原文本进行透彻理解的基础上,在译作中将原作者所刻画的现实世界以及认知世界反映出来。认知语言学十分注重体验以及认知所发挥的制约性作用,关注作者、文本、译者以及读者间存在的多重互动关系,期待达到“翻译的和谐性”以及“解释的合理性”。在翻译过程中,译者会受到从事翻译活动的相关认知主体之间互动性的影响。好的翻译虽然存在着译者的积极创作活动,但必须坚持“创而有度”,在创作过程中不能过分发挥,所以认知语言学的翻译观应该是“追求平衡”的。可见,认知语言学的翻译理论能够为翻译教学带来更好的启迪。
认知语言学的经验主义认知观通常将语言能力看成是人们所具备的认知能力中必不可少的一部分。对语言结构而言,它和人类的主体经验以及概念知识有非常密切的关系,由于语言使用者在描写或陈述事物的过程中通常不简单地限定于客观陈述,通常会用更加自然、丰富的意义来描述它们。比如,人们在描述早餐的过程中,不仅会说自己在早餐时间吃什么,而且还会描述早餐的样式、味道等,这些内容都是人们自己的体验和感受,他们能够很好地体现人们对客观世界的认知。人们在日常生活中会碰到、经历多种现象,而且还会在这些方面储备数量巨大的经验以及思维概念,也就是语境。在认知语言学中,通常将属于某种既定领域的所有语境或认知体现叫作认知模型,而且还提出了与大多数认知模型并不是完全相同的、和人们生活以及文化有密切关系的、在人们的认知过程中不断整合的模型,这种复杂的完形结构被称为文化模型。文化模型对人们的认知模型(Ungerer F,SchmidH.J.2001)发挥着决定性作用。以中国人的早餐(breakfast)为例,它是和馒头、米粥以及咸菜等等这些食物紧密地联系起来的。这是因为,长时间以来,我国人民业已形成了自己独特的早餐文化,这也是一种文化模型。但是,对英国人来说,他们在“早餐”方面“breakfast”并不会和这些事物联系起来,而是会想到面包、牛奶等食物和饮料,这是英国人在早餐方面的“文化模型”。相似的案例也适应在从未到过中国的美国人,他们可能不会存在丝毫和中国春节相关联的概念,这是因为,庆祝春节不是美国人的文化,而且也没有这方面的经历。所以,对美国人而言,可能没有任何中国人如何庆祝春节的认识,这也是他们在这方面的认知模型。然而,在这些美国人和中国人试图通过交流来理解中国人如何庆祝春节的过程中,他极有可能会套用相似的认知模型,如庆祝圣诞节这种认知模型,试图更好地了解中国人庆祝春节的情况, 这也是不同的文化模型之间的碰撞。
在文化翻译教学的问题上,这个课题显得颇为复杂,不但牵涉到诸多理论问题,而且还具有较强实际操作意味。文化模型理论能够科学合理地指导译者站在认知语言层面开展翻译教学。当前很多语言哲学家都将语言和现实之间的关系看成了语言和文化之间的关系,假如没有文化承载语言的相关意义,语言将徒具形式。要使使得译者和读者更好地把握和体会词意,就要深入分析它所承载的文化信息。例如,commonplace,它的汉语意思是“平平常常的”,假如运用common-or-arden variety来代替commonplace,就能够看出它承载着英国的相关文化信息;假如运用garden-variety来替代这个词语,它能够体现出美国文化的相关信息。所以,不管是翻译理论教学,还是翻译实务教学,都要高度重视译入语背后的文化因素。在翻译理论教学的过程中,不仅要开设和跨文化以及文化密切相关的课程,教授相关的理论知识以及翻译技能,而且还要让学生从文化层面认识文化翻译,这样才能使学生从总体上把握以及体味源语言作品体现出来的文化内涵,增强学生的翻译水平。
在翻译教学中,要以认知语言学中的文化模型理论为依托,这样能够使教师向学生呈现的翻译理论以及翻译案例更加形象和具体,而不会显得空洞无味,能够让学生通过文化翻译教学,更好地掌握语言知识点,理解翻译实质意义。翻译中存在着“不可译性”以及“可译性”,这两个概念是相对的,其中,难以把握的概念是“不可译性”它们一般都具有较为特殊的异质性,在语音以及文字方面有着自己的结构性特征,内容涵盖音、形、义(意义)、意(意象和意境)等许多方面。从这些文化翻译内容在不同语言间的转换过程来看,这些“丧失”都是难以避免的。因此,如果运用文化模型理论来解释它们,就比较容易理解这些翻译现象。运用文化模型理论有助于教师更好地指导学生,从而让学生准确地理解翻译理论,准确地判断翻译内容的文化特征。
学习了文化模型理论后,学生就能够很好地认识到,绝对“忠于原文”仅仅是一种翻译的理想状况,在两种语言转换过程中要在一定程度上放宽“信”以及“忠”的尺度。从翻译过程来看,“意义对意义”被看成是较为笼统的翻译,就算“等值”转换,也不能完全和原著相吻合。以英语中的语势(force)为例,可以用叠字来获得相应的语势,从而更好地体现出声形美,但英语没有叠字,因此不能获得相应的语势。例如:“风萧萧兮易水寒,壮士一去兮不复还。”在这一句中,“风萧萧”是名传千古的绝句,假如将其翻译为“the wind blew and blew”,读者就会觉得笨拙、拗口,不能获得较好的翻译效果;假如将其翻译为“the wind blew desolately”,也只能认为“基本达意”。通常情况下,语势都是在独特的意境及巧妙的遣词造句中形成的,更能体现文化意义以及含蕴,但要想达到“等效”翻译的效果,却比较困难。
把认知语言学引入翻译教学,能够使学生更好地通过认知过程的变化,掌握翻译技能,成为更出色的翻译家。文化是语言得以持续发展的稳步动力和基础,因此,教师有责任让学生理解、把握以及运用“认知——体验——再现”规律,提高自己的文化翻译能力。
浏览量:2
下载量:0
时间:
Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
浏览量:3
下载量:0
时间:
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
浏览量:3
下载量:0
时间:
肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
浏览量:4
下载量:0
时间:
it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
浏览量:5
下载量:0
时间:
新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
浏览量:5
下载量:0
时间:
文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
浏览量:3
下载量:0
时间:
在我国,人们之所以把"九"看成是自己心目中的"天数"和最富有神奇色 彩的数字, 是因为"九" 这个数字的象征意义;数字"九"涉及面在我国所有数字中最广。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:东西方数字九的文化对比分析与翻译相关论文。仅供大家参考!
东西方数字九的文化对比分析与翻译全文如下:
"数是人类思维发展到一定阶段,为适应社会生产活动的需要,在符号的帮 助下产生的。"(苏金智,19 91)"数字是语言学中的一个特殊的领域。在科 学的数字世界里,它的功能是计算,秩序严谨,职司分明,是 实数;而在人类 心灵的数字世界中,它的功能是表义,许多数字经过“神化”后成为“玄数”、 “虚数”、“ 天数"。它们有着极其丰富的外延和内涵。"(王秉钦,1998) 由于受东西方文化传统、宗教信仰、语言崇拜、地理环境等方面的影响,数 字的神化存在着东西方的差异 ,但也存在着共性,有着共同的规律。在"数的 灵物崇拜"上各民族都有普通性。东方人有自己心目中的"天 数",而西方人 也有自己心目中的"神数"。神秘数字的演化规律一般经过"神化—泛化—虚 化"的过程。( 王秉钦,1998)
东西方已有不少有关数字科学的专著和论文, 如毕达哥拉斯(phythagoras) 学派的T·丹齐克的《数 科学语言》(商务印书馆,1998),英国人伦拉德·法 拉的《七的探源》;国内也有不少学者就数字写过著作 和论文,并开展过学术探 讨。如,王秉钦教授在其《语言与翻译新论》的中篇第六章就以"数的语义范围 比较 与翻译"为专题;苏金智曾写过《数的灵物崇拜》(载〈语言、社会、文化》 440页, 语文出版社,1991,1) 等。在1998 年南昌大学主办的"中国英汉语 比较研究会第二届年会暨第三次学术研讨会"上,英汉文化对比专 业委员会会 员曾就中南工业大学外语学院吴玲英老师的《中西文学中"以三为法”的文化模 式》展开了激烈的 讨论。本人认为东方人,尤其是中国人,自己心目中的天数 是"九"而不是"三",也并非完全是因为"九" 是"三"的倍数。
在我国,人们之所以把"九"看成是自己心目中的"天数"和最富有神奇色 彩的数字, 是因为"九" 这个数字的象征意义(symbolicmeaning),在我国可 以说历时最久,涉及面也最广。 "九"作为数不同于一 般数字,在中国古代被 认为是一种神秘的数字,它起初是龙形(或蛇形)图腾化之文字,继而演化出"神 圣" 之意,于是中国古代历代帝王为了表示自己神圣的权力为天赐神赋,便竭 力把自己同“九”联系在一起。如天 分九层,极言其高,天证/诞日为正月初 九,天子祭天一年九次。更有趣的是连皇宫建筑都与"九"有关。例 如,北京 城有九门,天安门城楼面阔九问,门上饰有九路钉(即每扇门的门钉纵横各九排)。 汉语词汇中也常 用"九"来形容帝王将相的称谓,如"九五之尊"(imperial throne);称官位仅次于皇帝的王爷为"九千岁 "等。
根据阴阳五行与数的关系,万物之根均为数,宇宙也是数。数始于1而终于 10,五行也是数,按传统的五行 理论来划分,则1、2为木:1为阳木,2为阴 木。以3、4为火:3为阳火,4为阴火。以5、6为土:5为阳土,6为 阴土。 以7、8为金:7为阳金,8为阴金。以9、10为水:9 为阳水,10为阴水。这 就是将"象"、"数"与五行 结合起来推演变化,用以显示事物发展变化的内 在联系。由此看来,"九"是最大的阳数,象征着天。传说古 代中国人把天分 为九层,九层天是天的最高处,汉语中有关词汇有"九重霄"(指极高的天空, "九霄云外" ,"九天揽月","九天九地"等。另外,天坛,这个明清两代 祭天的场所,其建筑无处不体现着“九”的象 征意义。 民间传说中还有"九头 鸟"(nine-headed bird: a fabulous bird whose appearance was f ormerlyregarded as a bad omcn)的故事。
中国人以"九"为大数,刘师培在《古书疑义举例补》一书中写道:"凡数 指其极者,皆得称之为'九' ;"《素问》中说:"天地之数,始于一,终于 九。"因此,汉语中有"九九归一"或"九九归原"之说。因 从"九"为数之 极而引出人生之限,故"明九"或"暗九"均为人生之"坎",避讳有“九”之 岁。例如:“ 老太太因明年八十一岁,是个暗九。"(《红楼梦》)。日本人一般 认为"九"是"苦命和痛苦"的象征,因 为"九"与"苦"同音,因此忌讳 "九"。然而,《外语与外语教学》曾报道过国内一位学者曾为考证这一点 ,采 用"全选法"将日本某地电话号码其中的几千个姓和名分别进行统计,结果发现 将"九"作为姓的只占极 少数(约占0.35%),而将"九"作为名的却不少(约 占35%)。看来,日本人忌讳"九"也并非绝对。
此外,《词源》中说:"九:虚指多数。""九"作虚数解时,是数的一种 语义模糊现象。《现代汉语词 典》中,"九"的意思有三个:(1)数目,八加一 后所得;(2)从冬至起每九天是一个"九",从一"九" 数起,二"九"、三 "九",一直数到九"九"为止。冬练三九,夏练三伏;(3)表示多数或多次: 九泉,三 弯九转等。因此, 汉语中有不少和"九"有关的成语。如:"九牛一 毛"、"九死一生"、"九牛二虎之力" 、"九流宾客"等等。
在我国,数字"九"涉及面在所有数字中最广。含有数字"九"的词汇也十 分丰富。如,"九州"是指传 说中的我国上古行政区划,后用作"中国"的代 称。因此,有的全国性的电视节目就取名为“九州方圆”;“ 九族"(the nine degrees of kindred: either thenine generations from one's great-great-gr andfather down toone's great-great-grandson;or four generations of one'spatemal relations, three generations of one's matemalrelations, and two generations of noe's wife's relatio ns),古代有一种残酷的刑法叫"诛灭九族";古代传说 "龙生九子,各有所好"。因此,《红楼梦》第九回 中用"一龙生九种,种种各 别"来比喻贾氏家族族大人多,龙蛇混杂,好坏不一,各种各样的人都有。还有 " 九龙杯"等。此外,在文娱、体育等词汇中,数字"九"也比比皆是。如, 许多歌名都以"九"开头:"九妹 "、"九九艳阳天"、"九百九十九朵玫瑰" 等;乐器中也有"九音锣";在体育活动中,"九柱戏"(nine pins),兵器中 有"九节鞭"[但这与西方文化中的"九尾鞭”(cat-o '-nine- tails: an instrurnent of punishment so calledfrom the nine pieces of leather or cord which compose it)意义不大一样]。 地名中也有一些以"九"开头的,如"九 寨沟"、"九华山"、"九江"和"九龙"等。此外,中国人常把" 九"看成 为吉祥数字之一。在申请电话号码时,人们宁愿多出
钱去买一个尾数为"8"或 "9"的吉祥号码。比 如,湖南有线电视台的"欢乐热线"号码为"16899919"。 在西方,数字"九"也是人们心目中的"神数"之一。对西方人来说, "九"的象征意义是"神性"、 "神圣之至"。 英语权威字典Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary and Webster's ThirdIntema tional Dictionary 中 对"九"所解释的意义比《现代汉语词典》所解释的意义还多,分别有:
1)one more than eight, three threes, the square of three;2) nine units of objects (a tota l of nine) ; 3) a: thenumerable quantity symbolized by the arabic numeral 9; b: thefigure 9 ; 4) nine o'clock——compared Bell table, timeillustration; 5) the ninth size in a set series: as a; aplaying team of nine members,esp.a baseball team; b:the firstor last 9 hol es of an 18-hole golf course…。
其中收入与"九"有关词语和成语多达近二十条。常用的有:
a nine-day's wonder (an object or event that creates ashort-lived sensation)
____Those political expositions…that make a nine day'snine wonder till something fresh c omes alone——Mary Deasy. nine times out of ten(very often)
be dressed up to the nines(elaborately dressed, as for aformal occasion)
____She dressed herself up to the nines and went to theparty.
in the nineholes:in the difficult situation nine-men's morris: morris played with nine counters A cat has nine lives: A cat can move so fast and jump sowell that he seems to escape being killed many times.
从以上的解释还可以发现一个规律:数字"九"及其倍数在西方也被广泛运 用于文娱和体育活动中。如, 保龄球(bowling )中的瓶状木柱数(ninepins) 为"九";高尔夫球球场有一十八个洞:跳子棋的棋板上各 方均为九个孔; 古 时英国还有一种九个男人一起跳的舞蹈(morrisdance)等。由此看来,数字"九" 也倍 受西方人的青睐。
总之,在东西方文化中,数字"九"含有以下主要共性:
1)东西方大多数人把数字"九"看成神秘的数字, 其象征意义均有"神 圣"之意。
2)在东西方文化中,数字"九"均可虚指多数。
3)数字"九"被广泛运用于文体项目中。
数字“九”在东西方文化中的个性恐怕主要在于:对中国人来说,其神奇色 彩要比西方人更浓;其象征意 义的历史在东方文化中比西方文化中更悠久;其 涉及面在东方文化中比西方文化中更广泛。
罗马西塞罗说过:"翻译不是字当句对,而是保留语言的总风格和力 量。""按分量而不是按数量译词" 。此处所说的数字是指经过神化、泛化、 虚化了的"虚数","实数"的翻译不在此例。根据这一理论,结合 东西方文 化的共性与个性,可采用如下的翻译方法,并遵循以下的翻译原则。
可采取的翻译方法主要有:
(一)保留原数字
e.g. We thought our cat would be killed when he fell fromthe roof of the house. He was not, he used up one of his ninelives.
我们以为我们的猫从屋顶掉下来会死了,它并没死,只失掉九条命中的一条。 这样翻译过来,人们很容易接受,因为人们已熟悉"猫有九命"这个成语, 并能够促进东西方文化的融合 。
(二)转换成各民族喜爱的数字
e.g.nine out of ten——十之八九 nine days' wonder———可翻译为"昙花一现", 这样翻译可以加深对奈 达的"对等"和纽马克的"转 换"翻译理论的理解。
(三)增舍数字
比如,"九死一生"可翻译成"a narrow escape from death;survival after many hazards";又如 ,"九九归一,还是他说的话对。"可翻译成"All things considered,what he says is right."其译文均 舍弃了数字,转译其 形象意义。
应遵循的原则主要有:
(一)民族性原则
比如,汉语中的"费了九牛二虎之力",《汉英词典》(外研社,1996)的译 文有三个:"strain onese lf to the limit; use everyounce of one's strength; make herculean efforts"。笔者认为第二种译文 "use every ounce of one's strength "更符合"民族性原则”,成功地将东方文化中该成语的比喻意义转 化成了西方文化语言中的形象意义。
(二)习语性原则
比如:"匡超人此时恍若亲见瑶宫仙子,月下嫦娥,那魂灵都飘到九霄云外 去了。"(《儒林外史》), 其译文为"Kuang felt that he was gazing at a goddess and his spirit had flown to heaven."这种译 文因遵循了"习语性原则", 充分地体现了人类交际行为的一个最根本原则——语言——符号的经济原则。
(三)形象性原则
数字用于模糊意义时,一般都失去了其数量意义而具有形象意义。翻译时, 必须越出其理性意义而捕捉其 与其它的词结合后所产生的形象意义。
比如:"飞流直下三千尽,疑是银河落九天(李白)。"此句诗中的"九天" 的形象意义为"极高的天空 ",因此,可翻译成"Down itcascades a sheer three thousand feet—As if the Silver River [i.e. the Milky. Way]were falling from heaven!"
浏览量:5
下载量:0
时间: